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A THIBETAN LAMA, AT PEKING. 



s. 



CHINA 



ROBERT K. DOUGLAS 
Of the British Museum, Professor of Chinese at King's College, London 



" China as a nation makes the whole world her debtor " 

REVISED AND ENLARGED 

WITH MA NT ILLUSTRA TIONS AND AN INDEX 





CHICAGO NEW YORK 

THE WERNER COMPANY 
1895 



lo^kj 



O.^K 



COPYRIGHT BY 

D. LOTHROP AND COMPANY 



COPYRIGHT 1895 

By the WERNER COMPANY 



History of China 






^ 



PREFACE. 

In the English edition of the volume now 
republished, the author acknowledged his in- 
debtedness in preparing it to Doctor Legge's 
" Chinese Classics," Archdeacon Gray's work on 
China, Doolittle's " Social Life of the Chinese," 
Dennys's " Chinese Folklore," Mayers's " Chinese 
Reader's Manual," Sir John Davis's " Poetry 
of the Chinese," as well as to the important 
linguistic, religious and topographical writings 
of Doctor Edkins of Peking, and to other 
foreign and native works. 

Among the laborers to whom Professor Douglas 
was much indebted, the late Professor S. Wells 
Williams, of Yale College, should be also prom- 
inentl}^ mentioned. Probably his work on the 
Middle Kingdom contains more information of 
value than any other single volume in our 
language, especially in the revised form given 
it by the lamented author just at the close of 
his life. 

In reprinting Professor Douglas's work, it 



6 Preface, 

"has been thought best to supply an analytical 
Table of Contents and an Index, conveniences 
often omitted in otherwise valuable English pub- 
lications ; and the opportunity has been embraced 
to revise the text somewhat in such a way as to 
render it more useful to its new readers, though 
no liberty has been taken with the author's 
statements of facts. 

A Chinese scholar, who combines a famili- 
arity with the wisdom of his native land and 
acquaintance with the civilization and intelli- 
gence of America, has read the text and has 
suggested a few remarks which have taken the 
form of footnotes. Probably the present is the 
first work on China that has thus had the 
advantage of careful revision by a native of the 
Flowery Land educated in the civilization of 
both the Eastern and the Western hemispheres. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. —SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE CHINESE 
. EMPIRE. 

Obscurity of the origin of the Chinese, 17. Culture of the earliest 
Settlers, 19. Writing, Arts, Astronomy, etc., 20. Babylonian 
(Accadian) Parallelisms, 23. The Year, 24. Mesopotamian 
Culture, 25. Divisions of the Empire, 26. The Term Shang-te, 
27. The great Flood, 28. The China of the Chow Dynasty, 
30. Reign of Kang, 31. Spread of Lawlessness, 32. The In- 
vention of Writing ordered, 36. War, 37. Degeneracy, 38. 
Confucius and Mencius, 40. Feudalism abolished, 42. The 
Great Wall, 43. The Dynasties, 44. The present Manchoo 
Rulers, 45. Schaal, the Jesuit, arrives, 46. Tibet added to 
the Empire, 49. Americans come, 49. Science enters, 51. 
Second English Embassy, 55. Bad Condition of Affairs, 56. 
Opium War, 57. Tai-ping Rebellion, 59. England proclaims 
War, 60. Chinese Gordon appears, 65. Women rule, 67. 
Rebellion in Yunnan, 70. A royal Maniage, 71. An imperial 
Death, 81. Peace, 86. 

CHAPTER II.— THE GOVERNMENT OF CHINA. 

A patriarchal Despotism, 87. Limit of royal Power, 88. "Viceroys, 
90. Corrupt Civil-service, 93. Ill-gotten Gain, 94. Light Taxes, 
96. A popular Prefect, 98. Imperial Censors, 99. Lax ]\Ioral- 
ity in administering Justice, 100. Tortures, etc, 103. Horrible 
Executions, 103. Strangulation, 104. Lynching, 105. Loath- 
some Dungeons, 107. The Canque, 112. 



8 Contents. 

CHAPTER III.— MARRIAGE. 

Institution of Marriage, 113. Marriage by Capture, 114. Wedding 
Ceremonies, 116. "Wedding Cards, 120. Presents, 122. Women 
difficult to manage, 127. Concubines, 128. Death better than 
Marriage, 129. Widows, 130. Suicide of Widows, 132. Cere- 
moniousness of the Chinese, 135. 

CHAPTER IV.- THE NURTURE AND EDUCATION OF THE 
YOUNG. 

Baby's Advent, 137. Baby's Cries, 138. Omens, 139. Mother's 
Movements, 140. Father's Power, 141. Subjection of Children, 
142. Punishment, 143. Filial Piety, 144. School-Life, 145. 
No Alphabet to learn, 146. The four Books and tive Classics, 
147. Two respectable Pursuits, 148. Fame vs. Rank, 149. 
Candidates for Office, 150. Examinations, 152. Essay-writing, 
153. Belling the Deer, 155. Successful ! 156. Another De- 
gree, 157. ^lilitary Examinations, 161. Warlike Backward- 
ness, 163. 

CHAPTER v. — FOOD AND DRESS. 

Variety of Climate, 164. Chopsticks and Slippery Food, 167. A 
cottage Dinner, 168. A Bill-of-Fare, 169. Dogs, Cats and 
other Delicacies, 170. Courses of a Feast, 171. Another Bill- 
of-Fare, 172. Fishes, 175. Oysters, 178. Poultry, 379. No 
Milk, 180. Clothing, 183. Buttons and Rank, 185. Modes 
of Hair-dressing, 188. Compressed Feet, 190. Barbers and 
Pigtails, 195. Shaven Heads, 197. Whiskers and Mustaches, 
199. 

CHAPTER VI.— AGRICULTURE. 

Agriculture highly esteemed, 200. Agricultural Boards, 202. Pro- 
cesses, 203. Products, 205. Rice Fields, 205. Irrigation, 206. 
Threshing, 209. Tea-plants, 210. Cultivation of Tea, 213, 



Contents. 9 

Varieties of Tea, 215. Tea-drinking, 216. Silk-culture, 218. 
The Silkworms, 219. Care of Them, 220. Superstitions, 221. 
Weaving Silk, 222. Wild Silkworms, 225. Insect-wax, 226. 

CHAPTER VII. — MEDICINE. 

Antiquit}' of the Medical Art, 229. Highest Development, 230, 
Empiricism, 231. No Medical Colleges, 232. Quack Doctors, 
233. Remedies, 234. Fees, 235. Acupuncture, 236. Insanity, 
237. Mercury early used, 238. 

CHAPTER VIII.— MUSIC. 

Antiquity of Music, 239. Pre-Chinese Stage, 240. Instruments, 
241. Musical Stones, 243. Bells, 245. Gongs, 247. Stringed 
Instruments the Favorites, 248. Music and Politics, 250. Music 
and Morals, 253. The Imperial Board of Music, 254. 

CHAPTER IX.— ARCHITECTURE. 

No old Buildings or Ruins, 255. Tent-like Structures, 256. Dreary 

Streets, 257. Uniform Houses, 258. No Comforts, 262. Colors 

regulated by Law, 263. Streets and Roads, 264. Shops, 266. 

. Foos, 266. Walls, 271. Temples, 272. Buddhist Temples, 277. 

Padogas, 279. 

CHAPTER X.— DRAWING. 

Antiquity of the Art, 280. Chinese not ai-tistic, 283. Mechanical 
Rules followed, 284. Art Legislation, 288. Landscape Draw- 
ing, 289. Portraits, 289. A Tragedy, 290. 

CHAPTER XI.— TRAVELLING. 

Slow and Sure, 291. No Springs to the Carriages, 292. Mules 
and Ponies, 293. Boats, 294. Junks that go to Sea, 297. 
Typhoons sweep the Seas, 299. Living in Boats, 300. Advan- 
tages of Boats, 302. Travel by Wheelbarrow, 304. System of 
Highways, 309. Bridges, 310. 



IP Contents. 

CHAPTER XII.— HONORS. 

Honors not Inheritable, 312. Posthumous Honors, 313. Titles, 314. 
Gordon's Honors, 315. Yellow Jackets, 317. Permission to ride 
into the Palace, 318. Women honored, 319. Miss Wang's 
Reward for Propriety, 320. Spinster's Honors, 322. 

CHAPTER XIII.— NAMES. 

Antiquity of Surnames, 324. Intermarriages, 325. The twelve Sing, 
326. The Ancestral Hall, 327. Professor of Ceremonies, 329. 
Personal Names, 331. The Milk Name, 331. High-sounding 
Names, 332. 

CHAPTER XIV.— THE CHINESE YEAR. 

Antiquity (as usual) of the Months, 333. Intercalary Month, 335. 
Rejoicings on New Year's Day, 335. A good Time to make 
Matrimonial Engagements, 337. Omens, 338. Symbolism, 340. 
Women feast, 340. Feast of Lanterns, 341. Women out after 
Dark, 342. Work again, 343. Food appropriate for this 
Period, 344. Divisions of the Year, 345. Atmospheric Changes, 
347. Spring "received" officially, 348. Imperial Sod-turning, 
349. Sacrificial Plowing, 352. In the Graveyard, 355. For 
the Comfort of the Manes, 356. Superstitions, 358. Buddha's 
Birthday, 359. Dragon-boat Festival, 360. Cart Races, 362. 
Women Sacrifice, 364. Ghost-feeding, 365. Festival of the 
Moon, 367. Imperial Hunting, 368. Kite-flying, 371. Preparing 
the Ghosts for Winter, 372. Thanksgiving-Day, 377. Shaving 
heads, 379. Kitchen-gods honored, 381. Sexagenary Cycles, 
383. 

CHAPTER XV.— SUPERSTITIONS. 

English Superstitions, 386. Coincidences, 387. Eclipses, 388. Watch- 
ing the Planets, 392. Portents, 393. Divining the Future, 395. 
Fortune-telling, 397. Physiognomy, 399. Back Hair vs. Offi- 



Contents. 11 

cial Advance, 401. The Mouth and its Meanings, 4{)2. Spirit- 
ualism, 404. Magic Pencils, 406. Clairvoj'ance, 409. 

CHAPTER XYI.— FUNERAL RITES. 

Antiquity of Burials, 410. Immolations, 411. Trosseau for the 
next World, 412. Death-bed Scenes, 413. Omens, 415. Death 
Letters, 416. The future Life, 418. Burial-services, 420. The 
ancestral Tablet, 423. Anniversaries, 425. Sepulchres, 425. 
Cremation, 427. 

CHAPTER XVII.— THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA. 

The three Religions, 428. Shang-te, 430. Teachings of Confucius, 
430. Fading Belief in a personal Deity, 429. Self-cultivation, 
433. Heaven, 434. Taouism, 438. Its origin, 439. The Nir- 
vana of the Buddhists, 441. Superstitions, 443. Monopoly of 
Taoui.im, 445. Buddhism, 446. Indian ^Missionaries, 449. Relics, 
450. Philosophical Ideas, 452. Pure Nothingness, 455. A ter- 
restrial Paradise necessary, 459. Buddhism disowned, 460. 
Mahommadenism, 463. 

CHAPTER XVIII.— THE LANGUAGE. 

No clear Account of the Origin of Language, 464. The eight 
Diagrams, 465. The Kwei Writing, 466. Tradition concerning 
the Origin of Writing, 467. Phonetic Writing, 469. A fixed 
System, 471. Ignorance of Philology, 472. Suffixes, 475. 
Classification of the Characters, 476. A Cumbersome System, 
478. Double Words, 479. Compound words, 481. Probable 
Origin of the Language, 482. Phonetic Decay, 484. Power of 
Tones, 485. Absence of Inflexion, 488. Self-depreciation in 
Conversation, 489. The Imperial we, 491. Modes and Tenses, 
493. 



12 Contents. 

CHAPTER XIX.— THE LITERATURE. 

Literary Activity, 494. An unplastic Language, 495. Origin of 
the Literature, 496. The most antique Book, 497. Light on 
the Aborigines, 499. Book of History, 502. Science wanting, 
504. Work of Confucius, 507. Mencius, 511. Burning Librar- 
ies, 512. Re-creating the Literature, 517. Biography, 530. Phil- 
osophy, 534. Astronomy, 535. Golden Age of Letters, 538. 
Encyclopaedias, 539. Essay-writing, 545. Poetry, 547, Dramatic 
Work, 552. Theatres, 554. Novels, 555. 

CHAPTER XX.-CONTINUATION OF HISTORY OF CHINESE 
EMPIRE FROM 1875 TO 1894 INCLUSIVE.* 

Li-Hung-Chang appointed Prime Minister, 558. The war in 
Kashgaria, 559. Railway construction, 560. Capture of Kashgar, 

562. St, Petersburg Mission fails, 563. Marquis Tseng's success, 

563. Retrocession of Kuldja, 563. The Opium Trade, 565. 
Revolt on Island of Hainan, 566. General Grant visits Pek- 
ing, 566, Death of Empress Regent Tsi-An, 566. Treaty with 
Corea, 566. Japanese resentment, 567. The Tonquin War, 
567. King of Annam Surrenders to France, 569. An "unofficial 
war," 569. The Treaty of Tientsin, 571. English occupy Port 
Hamilton, 572. Prince Chun becomes Dictator, 573. Educa- 
tional Advancement, 574, Railway Progress, 575. " China's 
Sorrow," 575. Marriage of Emperor, 576. He ascends the Throne, 
576. Right of Audience, 577. United States Minister Blair, 578. 
Trade and Commerce, 579. Japan lands troops in Corea, 581. 
Defeat of Corean army, 581, China demands withdrawal of 
Japanese Troops, 581. Declaration of War, 583. Japanese 
army lands in Manchuria, 583, Japanese victories, 584. 
Chinese Army and Navy, 585, China's Humiliation, 587, 
Japanese Atrocities, 587. Chinese Envoys proceed to Japan, 
588. China's Executive Government, 591. China beyond the 
Wall, 592. 

Index 596 



♦Note.— For the continuation of the history of China, up to the 
QlQSe of the year 1894, see Chap, xx, at end of book, 



ILLUSTEATIONS. 



A Tibetan Lama at Peking .... Frontispiece. 

Scenery in Western China 21 

Natives of Southwestern China 27 

Natives of Western China (Ta-li) 33 

Image of Confucius 35 

Chinese Water-proof Clothing 39 

The Chinese Wall 42 

Types of uncivilized Women ....*.. 47 

A Chinese Boat-woman and Children .... 53 

A Street in the North of China 63 

A Valley in Southwestern China . . . . .77 

Natives of Southwestern China. (Northern Yunnan.) . 83 

A Mandarin in his Sedan-chair 97 

The Bastinado 101 

A Prisoner in the Canque 109 

Part of a Chinese bridal Procession . . . .117 

A Bridal Procession 122 

Chinese Bride and Groom 123 

Household Ornaments 136 

A Schoolgirl 146 

A Chinese Teacher 159 

Chinese Mope of Dressing the Hair 165 

Cormorant-fishing from a Raft 173 

Chinese Head-dress, Bracelets and Ear-ornaments . 181 

A Hong Kong Woman . 186 

13 



14 Illustrations. 

Types of Chinese Girls 187 

Mother and Child 191 

Compressed Feet 192 

A Street Barber at Work 193 

Men's Faces 197 

A Street Barber 198 

A Chinese Farm " 201 

Chinese Agriculture 207 

In a Chinese Farm-yard 211 

Roasting Tea 214 

In a Tea-Shop 215 

Preparing Tea . 216 

The Tea-plant 223 

Musical Women . 244 

Chinese Musicians 251 

A Chinese Gateway 257 

A Mandarin's Yamun official Residence. . . .259 

A Chinese Shop 265 

In a Chinese Garden ........ 269 

A War-tower 272 

A City Gate . . 273 

A Chinese Portrait-painter . . . . . . .281 

A Chinese Artist at work . . . . . . . 285 

A Chinese Junk . . . • 292 

Chinese Boats 295 

A Mandarin's Junk 296 

Chinese Coasting-vessels ' 299 

Passenger-boats 302 

A Wheelbarrow with Sail 307 

Sacrificial Plowing 353 

Kite-flying 369 

Women of Southern China 405 



Illustrations, 16 

In a Chinese Cemeteuy . . . . , , . . 425 

A Buddhist Abbot 431 

A Chinese Shkine 445 

In a Temple , . , . . 451 

Mahommedan Pagodas at Ta-li 457 

A Chinese Mahommedan 4€l 

A Chinese Teacher and Pupil 475 

Chinese Street Amusements 511 

At Breakfast 515 

Crocodile Point, Si-kiang River 521 

Chinese Scenery near Ha-ngan 53I 

A Chinese Gentleman . 54I 







CHINA. 



CHAPTER I. 



SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE CHINESE 
EMPIRE. 

^pHE origin of the Chi- 
nese race is shrouded 
ill some obscurity, the 
first records we have 
of it representing it 
as a band of im- 
migrants settling in 
the northeastern prov- 
inces of the modern 
empire of China, and 
fighting its way amongst the aborigines, 
much as the Jews of old forced their 
way into Canaan against the various 
tribes which they found in possession of 
that land. It is probable that though 
these all entered China by the same 
route, they separated into bands almost 




18 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire. 

on the threshold of the empire. One body, those 
who have left us the records of their history in 
the ancient Chinese books, apparently followed 
the course of the Yellow (Hoang-ho) River, and, 
turning southward with it from its northernmost 
bend, settled themselves in the fertile districts 
of the provinces of Shansi and Hon an. As 
we find also that at about the same period a 
large settlement was made as far south as Annam, 
of which there is no mention in the books of 
the northern Chinese, we must assume that an- 
other body struck directly southward through the 
southern provinces of China to that country. 

The question then arises, Where did these 
people come from? and the answer which re- 
cent research gives to this question is, From 
the south of the Caspian Sea. In the chapter 
on the Chinese language we shall give the 
philological reasons which have led to this 
discovery. Here we will merely say that, in all 
probability, the outbreak in Susiana of, possibh% 
some political disturbance, which occurred abont 
the twenty-fourth or twenty-third century be- 
fore Christ, drove the Chinese from the land 
of their adoption, and that they wandered 
eastward until they finally settled in China 



Western Origin of the Chinese. 19 

and the countries south of it. Such an emi- 
gration is by no means unusual in Asia. We 
know that the Ottoman Turks originally had 
their home in Northern Mongolia, and we have 
a record of the movement, at the end of the 
last century, of a body of six hundred thou- 
sand Kalmucks from Russia to the confines of 
China.* It would appear also that the Chinese 
came into China possessed of the resources of 
Western Asian culture. They brought witli 
them a knowledge of writing and astronomy, as 
well as of the arts which primarily minister to 
the wants and comfort of mankind. The inven- 
tion of these civilizing influences is traditionally 
attributed to the Emperor Hwang-te, who is said 
to have reigned from b. c. 2697-2597; but the 
name of this sovereign leads us to suppose that 
he never sat on the throne in China. One of 
his names, we are told, was Nai, anciently Nak, 
and in the Chinese paleographical collection he 
is described by a character composed of a group 
of phonographs which read Nak-kon-ti. The 
resemblance between this name and that of 
Nakhunte, who, according to the Susian texts, 

*In this connection the reader will be interested in De Quincey's thrilling 
account of the Flight of a Tartar Tribe. 



20 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire. 

was the chief of the gods, is sufficiently striking, 
and many of the attributes ascribed to him are 
such as to place him on an equality with tlie 
Susian deity. In exact accordance also with 
the system of Babylonian chronology, he estab- 
lished a cycle of twelve years, and fixed the 
length of the year at three hundred and 
sixty days composed of twelve months, with 
an intercalary month to produce a correspondence 
with the Solar year. Further, we are told that 
he built a Ling tai, or observatory (reminding 
us of the Babylonian Zigguratu^ or house of ob- 
servation), "from which to watch the movements 
of the heavenly bodies." 

The primitive Chinese, like the Babylonians, 
recognized five planets besides the sun and 
moon, and, with one exception, knew them hy 
the same names. Jupiter, which among the 
Chaldeans was called " The planet," appears 
among the Chinese as " The one." To Baby- 
lonians and Chinese alike. Mars was " King " 
and " Criminal," and Saturn " King " and 
"Righteousness," while among the first Venus 
was known as the " Queen of the defences of 
heaven," and among the latter as " Soldiers 
waiting." Mercury was recognized by differ- 



Babylonian Parallelisms. 23 

ent names, from which fact it may possibly 
be inferred that it was discovered b}^ both 
peoples at a comparatively recent date.* The 
various phases of these planets were care- 
fully watched, and portents were derived from 
every real and imaginary change in their 
relative positions and colors. A comparison be- 
tween the astrological tablets, translated by Pro- 
fessor Sayce and the astrological chapter (27th) 
in the She ke, the earliest of the Dynastic His- 
tories, shows a remarkable parallelism, not only 
in the general style of the forecasts, but in 
particular portents which are so contrary to 
the prejudices of the Chinese as a nation, and 
to the train of thought of the people that 
they would be at once put down as of foreign 
origin, even if they were not found in the 
Babylonian records. Such, for example, are the 
constant references to the country of the "des- 
ert," to the adverse fortunes of the empire, 
and the common occurrence of such expres- 
sions as " Soldiers arise ; " but the most curious 
coincidence is the occurrence, in both chroni- 
cles, of the forecast — " Gold is exchanged." 
Professor Sayce, being uncertain as to the 

* Sayce's Astronomy and Astrology of the Babylonians. 



24 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire, 

exact translation, adds a query to the render- 
ing just given, and in the Chinese we have 
but the words Tui^ " (Coin) is exchanged," 
and Puh tui^ " (Coin) is not exchanged." 

In the reign of Chwan Hu (2513-2435 b. c.) 
we find according to the Chinese records, that 
the year, as among the Chaldeans, began with 
the third month of the Solar year, and a com- 
parison between the ancient names of the months 
given in the Urh ya^ the oldest Chinese diction- 
ary, with the Accadian equivalents, shows, in 
some instances, an exact identity. For example, 
in Chinese the fifth month was called Haou^ 
" bright ; " the ninth month Huen^ " dark ; " 
the tenth month Yang^ " bright," " the sun," 
" the day ; " the eleventh month Koo^ " a 
crime," "a failure;" and the twelfth month 
Tsu^ "heavj^ dew or rain." Turning now to 
the Accadian, we find that these months were 
respectively known as Dhe dhegar^ " fire mak- 
ing fire ; " Yanyanna^ " thick clouds ; " Ahha 
suddu, " the cave of the rising of the sun ; " 
" the malediction of rain ; " and lastly " the 
month of mists." These parallelisms, together 
with a host of others which might be ad- 
duced, all point to the existence of an early 



The F'ung People. 25 

relationship between Chinese and Mesopota- 
mian culture ; and seem to indicate that, 
armed with the advantages thus possessed, the 
Chinese entered into the empire over which 
they were ultimately to spread themselves. * 
They came among tribes, who, though some- 
what inferior to them in general civilization, 
were by no means destitute of culture. We 
learn from the " Book of History " that the 
first Chinese rulers employed men of the Le 
tribe to calculate the equinoxes, and a man 
of the Kwei people to determine the notes of 
music. As has been conjectured by M. Terrien 
de La Couperie, these Kwei — remnants of 
whom are found to this day in Northern Cam- 
bodia — were an Aryan people. They certainly 
possessed a literature which, we are told, 
contained a treatise on music, to which the 
Kwei shoo, "the Kwei Books," probably refer. 
Like many other references to the aboriginal 
tribes in the early histories, this expression, 
Kwei shoo, has been entirely misunderstood, and 
since the character Kwei, which in this case 



* " Les Origines de I'Histoire d'apres la Bible." Par Francois Lenormant. 
This work exists in an American edition translated by Professor Francis Bro\vn. 
New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. 



26 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire, 

is to be read only as a phonograph, means 
Tortoise, the tradition has arisen that the 
Kwei shoo was a book written on the shell of 
a tortoise. In the same way we are told that 
the F'ung people came to court and delighted 
the Chinese emperor by their skill in dancing 
and singing, and, as a token of their homage, 
presented him some of their books. These 
F'ung people still exist in Southwestern China ; 
but, in defiance of this fact and of common- 
sense, it has been universally accepted by 
Chinese writers that, because the character 
which is used to represent the sound F'ung 
bears the meaning of phoenix, it was birds bear- 
ing that name that visited the Chinese court and 
displayed their accomplishments. 

Among such people, and others of a lower 
civilization, such as the Jungs of the west and 
the Teks, the ancestors of the Tekke Turco- 
mans, in the north, the Chinese succeeded in 
establishing themselves. The Emperor Yaou 
(2356-2255 b. c.) divided his kingdom into twelve 
portions, presided over by as many JPastors, in 
exact imitation of the duodenarj^ feudal system 
of Susa with their twelve Pastor Princes. To 
Yaou succeeded Shun, who carried on the 



Who was Shang-te? 27 

work of his predecessor of consolidating the 
Chinese power with energ}' and success. In 
his reign tlie first mention is made of religious 
worship. We are told that "he sacrificed spe- 
cially, but with the ordinary forais, to Sliang-te; 
sacrificed with purity and reverence to the six 




SOUTHWESTEKN CHINA. 



Honoured Ones ; offered appropriate sacrifices to 
the hills and rivers, and extended his worship 
to the host of spirits." Much controversy has 
arisen as to the interpretation of the term 
Shang-te. By some he is regarded as having 
held the position among the ancient Chinese 
that Jehovah held among the Jews of old; 



28 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire, 

and certainly many of his attributes are the 
same as those of the Jewish God. He was 
believed to exercise a minute and personal 
control over the fortunes of the Chinese. It 
was by his favor that kings rose to powier ; 
and when, in consequence of their iniquities, 
he withdrew his aegis from them, they ftdl to 
make room for others better than they. He 
was the supreme ruler. About the derivation 
of the character te^ there lias been as much 
difference of opinion as about the meaning of 
Shang-te. No satisfactory Chinese etymology 
has been found for it, and it is in all prob- 
ability nothing more than the eight point 
star of the Accadians, meaning *' ruler." Com- 
bined with the character Shang, it may be 
translated supreme ruler, but we find it, like 
the Accadian character, applied to temporal rulers 
among the Chinese. Of the six Honored Ones 
Chinese writers have not been able to offer 
any explanation. In the Susian texts, however, 
we find that next in rank to the chief deity 
were six gods of an inferior grade. 

In Slum's reign occurred the great flood 
which inundated most of the provinces of the 
existing empire. The waters, we are told, rose 



The " Great Flood:" 29 

to so great a height, that the people had to 
betake themselves to the mountains to escape 
death. The disaster arose, as many similar dis- 
asters of a less magnitude have since arisen, in 
consequence of the Yellow River bursting its 
bounds. The "Great Yu" was appointed to 
lead the waters back to their channel. With 
unremitting energy he set about his task, and 
in nine years succeeded in bringing the river 
under control. During this period so absorbed 
was he in his work that, we are told, he took 
heed neither of food nor clothing, and thrice 
passed the door of his house without once 
stopping to enter. At the completion of his 
labors, he divided the empire into nine instead 
of twelve provinces ; and tradition represents 
him as having engraved a record of his toils 
on a stone tablet on Mount Heng, in the pro- 
vince of Hoopih. As a reward for the ser- 
vices he thus rendered to the empire, he was 
invested with the principality of Hea, and after 
having served as prime minister to Shun for 
some years, he succeeded that sovereign on his 
death, in 2208 B. c. 

With Yu began the dynasty of Hea, which 
gave place in 1766 B. c, to the Shang Dynasty. 



30 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire. 

The last sovereign of the Hea line, Kieh kwei, 
is said to have been a monster of iniquity, 
and to have suffered the just punishment for 
his crimes at the liands of T'aug, tlie prince 
of the State of Shang, who took his throne 
from him. In like manner, six hundred and 
forty years later. Woo Wang, the Prince of 
Chov7, overthrew Chow Sin, the last of the 
Shang Dynasty, and established himself as the 
chief of the sovereign state of the empire. 
By " empire " it must not be supposed that 
the empire, as it exists at present, is meant. 
The China of the Cliow Dynasty lay between 
the 33d and 38th parallels of latitude, and 
the 106th and 119th of longitude only, and 
extended over no more than portions of the 
provinces of Pih chih-li, Shanse, Shense, Honan, 
Keang-se, and Shang-tung. This territory was 
re-arranged by Woo Wang into the nine prin- 
cipalities established by Yu, and in accoidance 
with his right as sovereign, he appointed over 
each a member of his own family or following, 
with the exception of one, the State of Sung, 
where a youthful scion of the Shang Dynasty 
was allowed to occupy the throne. Woo is 
held up in Chinese history as one of the 



Woo, the Model Monarch. 31 

model monarchs of antiquity. He insisted, we 
are told, with great earnestness on the import- 
ance of having the people taught thoroughly 
the duties of the five relations of society, viz., 
those of (1) ministers to their sovereign ; (2) 
children to their parents ; (3) husband to wife ; 
(4) brother to brother; (5) and friend to friend; 
of their being well fed, and of the proper 
observitnce of funeral ceremonies and sacrifices. 
In his administration of the affairs of the em- 
pire he was ably seconded by his brother, the 
Duke of Chow, who on tlie death of Woo 
became regent during the minority of the im- 
perial successor, Chiug (b. c. 1115). 

Under the next ruler, K'ang (b. c. 1078-1053), 
the empire was consolidated, and the feudal 
princes one and all acknowledged their allegi- 
ance to the ruling house of Chow. Under 
succeeding sovereigns jealousies and strifes broke 
out among them, and their loyalty to the liege 
lord fluctuated with the power he exercised. 
From all accounts there speedily occurred a 
marked degeneracy in the characters of the 
Chow kings. History tells us little about them, 
and that little is generally not to their credit. 

Among the most conspicuous of the early 



32 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire. 

kings was Muh (1001-947), who lias rendered 
himself notorious for having promulgated a 
penal code, under which the redemption of 
punishments was made permissable by the pay- 
ment of fines. The charge brought against him 
by historians, that tliis enactment first opened 
tlie door to the system of bribery and corrup- 
tion which has since produced great evils in 
China, may possibly be well founded*; but 
liowever this may be, it, at the time, only 
added one more source of harm to the grow- 
ing disorder of the State. 

Already a spirit of lawlessness was spreading 
far and wide among the princes and nobles, 
and wars and rumors of wars were creating 
misery and unrest throughout the country. 
Notwithstanding this, that literary instinct, which 
has been a marked characteristic of the Chi- 
nese throughout their long history, continued 
as active as ever. At stated intervals, officials, 
we are told, were sent in "light carriages" 
into all parts of the empire to collect words 
from the changing dialects of each district; 
and at the time of the royal progresses the 
official music-masters and historiographers of 
each principality presented to the officials of 



She Chow's System of Writing. 



35 



the sovereign state appointed for the purpose 
collections of the odes and songs of each local- 




I>-A^ t C„N 



ity, in order, we are told, that the character 
of the rule exercised by their several princes 



36 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire. 

should be judged by the tone of the poetical 
and musical productions of their subjects. The 
odes and songs thus collected were carefully 
preserved in the royal archives, and it was 
from tliese materials that, as is commonly be- 
lieved, Confucius compiled the celebrated She 
King^ or Book of Odes, of which we shall 
speak hereafter. 

It is obvious that at the period of which 
we have been wi'iting, the great variety of 
dialects existing, both in the states and among 
the feudatory tribes outside the frontiers, was 
giving rise to serious difficulties in the way 
of administering the kingdom, and was foster- 
ing a tendency to separation among the vari- 
ous peoples. In addition to this, the ancient 
characters of the language had, for reasons 
which will be hereafter explained, become to 
a great extent unintelligible. To correct these 
evils King Seuen (827-781) directed a man 
famous in Chinese history, She Chow by name, 
to invent a mode of writing knowji as Ta 
chuen, or the Great Seal characters, in con- 
formity with a system of a certain number of 
strokes, in order to establish a recognized 
centre of literary unity in the use of the 



A Degenerate Age. 87 

written characters. Such an artificial system 
could only be made to serve the object pro- 
posed under the rule of a succession of su- 
premely powerful sovereigns, and as such were 
denied to China at that period it failed en- 
tirely. 

Far from keeping up even the semblance of 
the authority exercised by the earlier Chow 
sovereigns, the successors of King Seuen failed 
to maintain any order among the subordinate 
princes. The hand of every man was against 
his neighbor, and a constant state of interne- 
cine war succeeded the peace and prosperity 
which had existed under the rule of Woo 
Wang. In the social relations was reflected 
the disorder into which the political world 
had fallen. Filial piety had almost ceased to 
exist, and great laxity in the marriage rela- 
tions gave rise to deeds of reckless licentious- 
ness and atrocious violence. The example set 
by the princes of taking with their brides 
eight other ladies at once was followed with- 
out scruple in that degenerate age ; and chiefs, 
bent on the prosecution of their own ambitious 
schemes, trod under foot the rights of the 
people, and hesitated not to use up the lives 



38 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire. 

and property of their subjects in piirsuciiice of 
their ends. "A host marches," says Mencius, 
speaking of this period, " and stores of pro- 
visions are consumed. The liiiugry are de- 
prived of their food, and there is no rest for 
those who are called to toil. Maledictions are 
uttered by one to another with eyes askance, 
and the people proceed to the commission of 
wickedness. Then the royal ordinances are 
violated, and the people are oppressed, and 
the supplies of food and drink flow away like 
water. The rulers yield themselves to the cur- 
rent; or they urge tlieir wa}^ against it; they 
are wild ; they are lost . . . The crime of 
him who connives at and aids the wickedness 
of his ruh-r is small, but the crime of him who 
anticipates and excites that wickedness is great. 
Tlie great officers of tlie present day are all 
guilty of this latter crime, and I say that 
they are sinners against the princes . . . 
Sage kings do not arise, and the princes of the 
states give the reins to their lusts ... In 
their stalls there are fat beasts, and in their 
stables tliere are fat horses, but their people 
have the look of hunger, and in the fields 
there are those who have died of famine. 



Confucius makes a Remark. 



39 



This is leading on beasts to devour men." A 
story, illustrative of the uncared-for state of the 
country and the oppression under which the 
people groaned, is told of Confucius. It chanced 




CHINESE WATER-l'ROOF CLOTHING. 



that on one occasion, as the Sage was journey- 
ing from the state of Loo to that of Ts'e, he 
saw a woman weeping by a tomb at the road- 
side. Having compassion on her, he sent his 
disciple, Tsze-loo, to ask lier the cause of her 



40 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire, 

grief. "You weep," said Tsze-loo, "as if you 
had experienced sorrow upon sorrow." " I 
have," said the woman; "my father-in-law was 
killed here by a tiger, and my husband also; 
and now my son has met the same fate." 
" Why then do you not remove from this 
place?" asked Confucius. "Because here there 
is no oppressive government," answered the 
woman. Turning to his disciples, Confucius re- 
marked, "- M.}T children, remember this, oppres- 
sive government is fiercer than a tiger." 

In their campaign against the prevailing law- 
lessness and violence neither Confucius (550- 
478 B. c.) nor Mencius (371-288 B. c.) were 
able to make any headway. Their preachings 
fell on deaf ears, and their peaceful admoni- 
tions were passed unheeded by men who held 
their fiefs by the strength of their right arms, 
and administered the affairs of their principali- 
ties surrounded by the din of war. The main 
articles of Confiicius's political creed was the 
primary importance of strengthening and reha- 
bilitating the kingdom of Chow in its suprem- 
acy over the surrounding states ; but the 
incompetency of its successive rulers levelled 
with the ground this castle in the air which 



Feudalism Abolished. 41 

he persisted in erecting, und he had scarcely 
passed away before it became evident that the 
sovereign sceptre of Chow would soon pass 
with the power, which was rapidly waning, to 
one of its more powerful vassals. As time went 
on and the disorder increased, supernatural 
signs added their testimony to the impending 
crisis. The brazen vessels upon which Yu had 
engraved the nine divisions of the empire were 
observed to shake and totter as though fore- 
shadowing tlie approaching change in the politi- 
cal position. Meanwhile Ts'in on the northwest, 
Ts'oo on the south, and Tsin on the north, hav- 
ing vanquished all the other states, engaged in 
the final struggle for the mastery over the 
confederate principalities. The ultimate victory 
rested with tlie state of Ts'in, and in 255 
B. c, Chaou-seang Wang became the acknowl- 
edged leader of the confederate principalities. 
He reigned only four years ; at the end of 
which time he was succeeded by ■ his son, 
Heaou-w-an Wang, who died almost immediately 
on ascending the throne. To him succeeded 
Chwang-seang Wang, who was followed in 246 
B. c. by Che Hw^ang-te, who having subdued all 
the states became the Emperor of China. The 



42 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire. 

abolition of feudalism, which was the first act of 
Che Hwang-te, raised much discontent among those 
to whom the feudal system had brought power and 
emoluments, and the countenance which had been 
given to the system by Confucius and Mencius 
made it desirable — so thought the emperor — to 




THE CHINESE WALL. 



demolish once for all their testimony in favor of 
that condition of affairs, which he had decreed 
should be among tlie things of the past. With this 
object he ordered that the whole existing liter- 
ature, with the exception of books on medicine, 



The Great Wall built. 43 

agriculture, and diviuation should be burned. 
The decree was obeyed as faithfully as was pos- 
sible in the case of so sweeping an ordinance, 
and for many years a night of ignorance rested 
on the country. The construction of one gigan- 
tic work — the Great Wall of China* — has 
made the name of this monarch as famous as 
the destruction of the books has made it in- 
famous. Finding the Heung-nu Tartars were 
making dangerous inroads into the empire, he 
determined with characteristic thoroughness to 
build a huge barrier which should protect the 
northern frontier of the empire through all 
time. In 214 B. c. the work was begun under 
his personal supervision, and though e^Qvy en- 
deavor was made to hasten its completion he 
died (209) leaving it unfinished. His death 
was the signal for a general revolt among the 
oppressed and down-trodden populace, who, how- 
ever, after some years of disorder were brought 
under the rule of a successful leader, wlio adopted 
the title of Kaou-te, and named his dynast}^ 
that of Han (206). 

*The Great Wall is the most gigantic work of defence ever erected by 
man. At some points, it is a simple rampart, but in others it has a granite 
foundation. Its height is from fifteen to thirty feet, and its breadth so great that 
six horsemen can ride on it abreast. It is some fifteen hundred miles long. 



44 Sketch of the Hhtory of the Chinese Empire. 

From tliat day to this, witli occasional in- 
terregnums, the empire has been ruled on the 
lines laid down by Che Hwang-te. Dynasty 
has succeeded dynasty, but the political tradi- 
tion has remained unchanged, and though Mon- 
gols and Manchoos have at different times 
wrested the throne from its legitimate heirs, 
they have been engulfed in the homogeneous 
mass inhabiting the empire, and instead of im- 
pressing their seal on the country have become 
but the reflection of the vanquished. The 
dynasties from the beginning of the earlier 
Han, founded, as stated above, by Kaou-te, are 
as follows: 



VThe earlier Han Dyiiat>ly 



The late Hati 
The Wei * 
The western T>\\\ 
Tlie eastern Tsin 
The Sung 
The Ts'e ' 
The Leang 
The Ch'in 



chuen in 220-263, and that of Wu 222-277. 





B. C. 




A. D 


. 


206 

A. D. 




25 




25 


— 


220 




220 


— 


280 




265 


— 


317 




317 


— 


420 




420 


— 


479 




470 


— 


502 




502 


— 


557 




557 


— 


589 


sted that 


of the Minor 


Flan in 



The Dynasties, 



45 



Simultaneously witli these — 



The northern Wei Dynasty 


386 


— 


534 


Tlie western Wei 


a 


535 


— 


557 


The eastern Wei 


a 


534 


— 


550 


The northern Ts'e 


"... 


• 550 


— 


577 


The northern Chow 


'^ . . . 


557 


— 


589 


Tlie Suy 


(( 


589 


— 


618 


VThe T'ang 


a 


618 


— 


907 


The later Leang 


" . , . 


907 


— 


923 


Tlie later T'ang 


u 


923 


— 


936 


The later Tsin 


(£ ^ 


936 


— 


947 


The later Han 


a 


947 


— 


951 


The later Chow 


a 


951 


— 


960 


The Sung 


" c 


960 


— 


1127 


The Southern Sung 


u 


1127 


— 


1280 


The Yuen (Tartar) 


(( 


1280 


— 


1368 


The Ming 


a 


1368 


— 


1644 


The Tae Ts'ing 


n 


1644 


— 




Simultaneously with some of these — 








The Leaou Dynasty 


. 


907 


— 


1125 


The western Leaou 


Dynasty . 


1125 


— 


1168 


The Kin 


<( 


1115 


— 


1280 



Tlie present Manchoo rulers of China are de- 
scendants of the Kin Tartars, and had their 
original home in the valley of the Hurka, a 
river wliich flows into the Sungari in about 
46° 20' North latitude and 129° 50' East longi- 
tude. Under a succession of able leaders the 
tribe gained power and territory, and as time 



46 Sketch of the Hutory of the Chinese Empire. 

went on even reached the point of carrying on 
a not altogether unsuccessful guerilla warfare 
with the Ming rulers of China. In an evil 
moment, being hardly pressed by rebels in the 
south, the Chinese patched up a peace with 
the Manchoos, and went so far as to invite 
their assistance against the southern rebels. 
With alacrity the Manchoos responded to the 
call, and vanquished the common enemy. But 
wlien requested to withdraw again across the 
frontier they refused, and ended by placmg 
the ninth son of their sovereign, Teen-ming, 
on the throne of Peking. The dynasty thus 
founded was styled the Ts'ing, or "Pure" 
dynasty, and the title adopted by the first 
emperor of the line was Shun-che. It was 
during the reign of this sovereign that Adam 
Schaal, a German Jesuit, took up his residence 
at Peking, and that the first Russian Embassy 
(1656) visited the capital ; but in those days 
the Chinese had not learned to tolerate the 
idea that a foreigner should enter the presence 
of the Son of Heaven unless he were willing 
to perform the prostration known as the Ko- 
t'ow ; and the Russians, not being inclined to 
humor such presumptuous folly, as they deemed 




TYPES OF UNCIVILIZED WOMEN. 






47 



iShun-che a Guest in Heaven. 49 

it, left the capital without opening negotia- 
tions.* 

In 1661 the Emperor Shun-che became a 
''guest in heaven," or in other words, died, 
and K'ang-he, his son, reigned in his stead. 
This sovereign is renowned in modern Cliinese 
history as a model ruler, a skilful general, and 
an able author. During his reign, Tibet was 
added to the empire, and the Eluths were suc- 
cessfully subdued. But it is as a just and 
considerate ruler that he is best remembered 
among the people. Among the most cherished 
monuments of his wisdom are the following 
"Sixteen Sacred Maxims," which are taught 
in every school throughout the empire, and 
which every candidate at the competitive ex- 
aminations is expected to know by heart, to- 
gether with the commentary thereon, by the 
imperial author's son and successor: 

1. Esteem most highly fihal piety and brotherly submissioTi, 
in order to give due prominence to the social relations. 

2. Behave with generosity to the branches of your kindred, 
in order to illustrate harmony and benignity. 

*The Portuguese visited China in 1517, but did not obtain a footing until 1537, 
since which time Macao has been in their power. The British made a visit to 
the country in the reign 6i Elizabeth, but it was not until 1727 that Canton was 
open to their trade. The first American consul was allowed to reside at Canton 
ill 1802. A 



50 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire, 

3. Cultivate peace and concord in your ueigliborliood, in 
order to prevent quarrels and litigation. 

4. Give importance to husbandry and to the culture of the 
mulberry-tree, in order to ensure a sufficiency of clothing and 
food. 

5. Show that you prize moderation and economy, in order 
to prevent the lavish waste of your means. 

6. Make much of the colleges and seminaries, in order to 
make correct the practice of the scholars. 

7. Discountenance and banish strange doctrines, in order to 
exalt the orthodox religion. 

8. Describe and explain the laws, in order to warn the igno- 
rant and obstinate. 

9. Exhibit clearly propriety and yielding courtesy, in order 
that manners and customes may be perfected. 

10. Labor diligently at your proper callings, in order to give 
settlement to the aims of the people. 

11. Instruct your sons and younger brothers in order to 
prevent their doing what is wrong. 

12. Put a stop to false accusations, in order to protect the 
honest and the good. 

1.3. Beware lest you shelter deserters and escaped criminals, 
in order that you may avoid being involved in their punisliments. 

14. Pay your taxes promptly and fully, in order to avoid 
urgent demands for your quota. 

1.5. Combine in hundreds and tithings, in order to put an 
end to thefts and robbery. 

10. Study to remove resentments and angi-y feelings, in 
order to show the importance due to the person and life. 

The support and patronage given to science 
and literature by K'ang-lie marked the beginning 



A new Intellectual !Era, 61 

of a new era in the intellectual life of the 
people. Under the guidance of the Jesuit mis- 
sionaries at Peking he studied, and lent his 
countenance to the various European sciences, 
more especially astronomy. To the cause of 
the native literature he devoted years of labor 
and vast sums of money. By his appointment 
a commission of scholars compiled a diction- 
ar}' of the language, which is the best work 
of the kind, and is called by his name ; 
and another illustrious company edited a vast 
encyclopaedia, containing articles on every known 
subject, and extracts from all works of author- 
ity dating from the twelfth centurj^ B. c. to 
that time. This huge work, which consists of 
five thousand and twenty volumes, is a monu- 
ment of industrious research. But as only a 
hundred copies of the first imperial edition 
were printed, all of which were presented to 
princes of the blood and high officials, it is 
rapidly becoming extremely rare, and it is not 
unlikely that before long the copy in the pos- 
session of the trustees of the British Museum 
will be the oidy complete one existing. A cold, 
caught on a hunting excursion in Mongolia, 
brought K'ang-he's memorable reign of sixty- 



52 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire, 

one years to a close, and he was succeeded 
on the throne by his son, Yung-ching, in the 
year 1722. 

After an uneventful reign of twelve years, 
Yung-ching was gathered to his fathers, having 
bequeathed his throne to his son K'een-lung. 
This sovereign possessed many of the great 
qualities of K'ang-he, but he lacked his wis- 
dom and moderation. He carried his armies 
north, south and west, bat though he converted 
Kuldja into a Chinese province, and fought 
a successful campaign against the Nepaulese 
Gorkhas, fortune on the whole inclined rather 
to the standard of his enemies than to his own. 
In Burmah, Cochin China, and Formosa, his 
troops suffered discomfitures, and even the 
Meaou-tsze tribes of Kwei-chow and Kwang-se 
proved themselves troublesome antagonists. Dur- 
ing his reign, which extended over sixty years 
— a full Chinese cjqXq — the relations of his 
government with the East India Company were 
extremely unsatisfactory. The English mer- 
chants were compelled to submit to many in- 
dignities and wrongs ; and for the purpose of 
establishing a better international understand- 
ing, Lord Macartney was sent by George the 



The English in China. 55 

Third on a special mission to the Court of 
Peking. The ambassador was received gra- 
ciously by the emperor, who accepted the pres- 
ents sent him by the English king, but owing 
to his ignorance of his own relative position 
and of the alphabet of international law, he 
declined to give those assurances of a more 
equitable policy which Avere demanded of him. 
In 1795, at the age of eighty-five, he ab- 
dicated in favor of his fifteenth son, who 
ascended the throne with the title of Kea- 
K'iug. 

During this reign a second English embassy 
was sent to Peking (1816), to represent to 
th-e emperor the unsatisfactory position of the 
English merchants in China. The envoy. Lord 
Amherst, was met at the mouth of the Peiho 
and conducted to Yuen-ming-yuen, or summer 
palace, where the emperor was residing. On 
his arrival he was officiall}^ warned that only 
on condition of his performing the Ko-t'ow 
would he be permitted to behold " the dragon 
countenance." This, of course, was impossible, 
and he consequently left the palace without 
having slept a night under its roof. Mean- 
while the internal affairs of the country were 



56 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire. 

even more disturbed than the foreign rela- 
tions. A succession of rebellions broke out 
in the northern and western provinces, and 
the seaboard was ravaged by pirates. While 
these disturbing causes were in full pla}*, Kea- 
k'ing died (1820), and the throne devolved upon 
Taou-kwang, his second son. 

Under this monarch both home and foreign 
affairs went from bad to worse. A secret 
league, known as the Triad Society, which was 
first formed during the reign of K'ang-he, now 
assumed a formidable bearing, and in many parts 
of the country, notably in Honan, Kwang-se, 
and Formosa, insurrections broke out at its in- 
stigation. At the same time the mandarins 
continued to persecute the English merchants, 
and on the expiry of the East India Com- 
pany's monopoly, in 1834, the English govern- 
ment sent Lord Napier to Canton to superintend 
the foreign trade at that port. Thwarted afc 
every turn b}^ the presumptuous obstinacy of 
the mandarins, Lord Napier's health gave way 
under the constant vexations connected with his 
post, and he died at Macao, after but a few 
months' residence in China. The opium trade 
was now the question of the hour, and at 



The Opium War. 57 

the urgent demand of Commissioner Lin, Cap- 
tain Elliot, the superintendent of trade, agreed 
that all opium in the hands of English mer- 
chants should be given up to the authorities ; 
and more than this, he exacted a pledge from 
his countrymen, that they would no longer deal 
in the drug. On the tliird of April, 1839, 
20,283 chests of opium were, in accordance 
with this agreement, handed over to the man- 
darins, who burnt them to ashes This demand 
of Lin's, though agreed to by the superintendent 
of trade, was considered so unreasonable by the 
English government, that in the following year 
war was declared against China.* The island 
of • Chusan and the Bogue forts on the Canton 
river soon fell into the hands of the English, 
and Commissioner Lin's successor sought to 
purchase peace by the cession of Hongkong 
and the payment of an indemnity of six mil- 
lion dollars. This convention was, however, 
repudiated by the Peking government, and it 
was not until Canton, Amoy, Ningpo, Chapoo, 
Shanghai, and Chin-keang-foo had been taken, 
that the emperor at last consented to come to 



*The importation of opium was unlawful, but, being very profitable, Great 
Britain determined to force it upon the Chinese. 



58 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire, 

terms. These, as was only just, were now far 
more onerous. By a treaty made by Sir Henry 
Pottinger in 1842, the cession of Hongkong 
was supplemented by the opening of the four 
ports of Amoy, Fuh-chow foo, Niiigpo, and 
Shanghai, to foreign trade, and the indemnity 
of six million dollars was increased to twenty- 
one million. Death put an end to Taou-kvvang's 
reign in 1850, and his fourth son, Heen-fung, 
assumed rule over the distracted empire which 
was bequeatlied him by his father. 

There is a popular belief among the Chinese 
that two hundred years is the natural life of 
a dynast}'. This is one of those traditions 
which are apt to bring about their own fulfil- 
ment, and in the beginning of the reign of 
Heen-fung the political air was rife with rumors 
that an effort was to be made to restore the 
Ming Dynasty to the throne. On such occa- 
sions there are always real or pretended scions 
of the required family forthcoming, and when 
tlie flames of rebellion broke out in Kwang-se, 
a claimant suddenly appeared under the title of 
T'een-tih, " heavenlj^ virtue," to head the move- 
ment. But T'een-tih had not the capacity re- 
quired to play the necessarv part, and the 



The Life of a Dynasty. 59 

affair languished and would have died out 
altogether, had not a leader, named Hung 
Sewtseuen, arose, who combined all the qualities 
required in a leader of men — energy, enthu- 
siasm, and religious bigotry. Having obtained 
some idea of Christianit}' from reading a tract 
issued by the missionaries, he professed him- 
self shocked at the iniquities of the pagan 
rulers of the laud, and thus added to the 
thousands of restless, discontented spirits who 
joined his banner a larger following gathered 
from the upper classes. As soon as lie was 
sufficiently powerful, he advanced northwards 
into Hoonan and Hoopih and captured Woo- 
chang foo, the capital of the last-named prov- 
ince, a city of considerable commercial and 
strategical importance, situated as it is at the 
junction of the Han river with the Yang-tsze 
keang. Having made this place secure, he ad- 
vanced down the river and made himself mas- 
ter of Gan-ting and the old capital of the 
empire, Nanking. Here, in 1852, he established 
his throne and proclaimeil the commencement 
of the Tai-ping Dynasty. For himself he 
adopted the title of T'een-wang, or "heavenly 
king." For a time all went well with the 



60 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire. 

new dynasty. The Tai-ping standard was car- 
ried northward to the walls of T'ien-tsin, and 
floated over the towns of Chin-keang foo and 
Soochow foo. 

Meanwhile the imperial authorities had by 
their stupidity raised another enemy against 
themselves. The outrage on the English flag- 
perpetrated on board the Lorcha Arrow at 
Canton, in 1857, having been left unredressed 
by the mandarins, led to the proclamation of 
war by England. Canton fell to the arms of 
General Straubenzee and Sir Michael Seymour in 
December of the same year, and in the follow- 
ing spring the Taku forts at the mouth of the 
Peiho having been taken, Lord Elgin, who had 
in the meantime arrived as Plenipotentiary^ ad- 
vanced up the river to T'ien-tsin on liis way 
to the capital. At that city, however, he was 
met by imperial commissioners, and, yielding to 
their entreaties, he concluded a treaty with 
them, which it was arranged should be ratified 
at Peking in the following year ; but the evil 
genius of the Chinese still pursuing them, they 
treacherously fired on the fleet accompanying 
Sir Frederick Bruce, Lord Elgin's brother, when 
proceeding, in 1860, to Peking, in fulfilment of 



Lord Elgin in China. 61 

this agreement. This outrage rendered another 
military expedition necessary, and, in conjunc- 
tion with the French Government, the Englisli 
Cabinet sent out a force under the command 
of Sir Hope Grant, with orders to march to 
Peking. -In the summer of 1861 the allied 
forces landed at Peh-tang, a village twelve 
miles north of the Taku forts, and, taking 
these entrenchments in the rear, captured them 
with but a trifling loss. This success was so 
utterly unexpected .by the Chinese, that, leav- 
ing T'ien-tsin unprotected, tliey retreated rap- 
idly to the neighborhood of the capital. The 
allies pushed on after them, and, in reply to 
an invitation sent from the imperial commis- 
sioners at Tung-chow, a town twelve miles 
from Peking, Sir Harry Parkes and Mr. Loch, 
accompanied by an escort and some few friends, 
went in advance of the army to make a pre- 
liminary convention. While so engaged they 
were treacherously taken prisoners and carried 
off to Peking. This act precipitated an en- 
gagement in which the. Chinese were completeh^ 
routed, and the allies marched on to Peking. 
After the usual display of obstinacy the Chinese 
yielded to the demand for the surrender of the 



62 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Umpire, 

An- ting Gate of the city. From this vantage- 
point Lord Elgin opened negotiations, and hav- 
ing secured the release of Sir Harry Parkes, 
Mr. Loch, and the other prisoners who had sur- 
vived the tortures to which they had been sub- 
jected, and having burnt Yuen-miiig-yuen, the 
summer palace of the emperor, as a punishment 
for their treacherous capture, and for the cruel- 
ties perpetrated on them, he concluded a treaty 
with Prince Kung, tlie representative of the em- 
peror. By this instrument the Chinese agreed 
to pay a war indemnity of eight million taels, 
and to open the ports of New-chwang, Che-foo, 
Kin-keang, Chin-keang, Hankow, Pak-hoi, Tni- 
wan in Formosa, and a port in the island of 
Hainan, to foreign trade, and to permit the 
representatives of the foreign governments to 
reside in Peking, 

Having thus relieved themselves from the 
presence of a foreign foe, the authorities were 
able to devote their attention to the suppres- 
sion of the Tai-ping rebellion. Fortunately for 
themselves, the apparent friendliness with which 
they greeted the arrival of the British Lega- 
tion at Peking enlisted for them the sympathies 
of Sir Frederick Bruce, the British Minister, 




A STREICT IX THE NORTH OF CHINA. 



" Chinese Crordon " Appears, 65 

and inclined him to listen to their request for 
the services of an English officer in their cam- 
paign against the rebels. At the request of 
Sir F. Bruce, General Staveley selected Major 
Gordon,* since generally known as " Chinese 
Gordon," for this duty. A better man, or one 
more peculiarly fitted for the work, could not 
have been found. A numerous force, known as 
"the ever-victorious army," partly officered by 
foreigners, had for some time been commanded 
by an American, named Ward, and after his 
deatli, by B urge vine, another American. Over 
this force Gordon was placed, and at the head 
of it he marched, in conjunction with the Chi- 
nese generals, against the Tai-pings. With mas- 
terly strategy he struck a succession of rapid 
and telling blows against the fortunes of the 
rebels. City after city fell into his hands, and 
at length the leaders at Soochow opened the 
gates of the city to him on condition that he 
would spare their lives. With cruel treachery 
when these men presented themselves before Le 
Hung-chang, the present Viceroy of Chih-li, to 
offer their submission to the emperor, they were 



* General Gordon has been prominent in the Egyptian war of the English du- 
ring the present year. He was killed in January, 1885. 

5 



66 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire, 

seized and beheaded. On learning how lightlj 
his word had been treated by the Chinese gen- 
eral, Gordon armed himself, for the first time 
during the campaign, with a revolver, and sought 
out the Chinese headquarters, intending to avenge 
with his own hand this murder of the Tai-ping 
leaders; but Le Huug-chang having received 
timely notice of the righteous anger he had 
aroused, took to flight, and Gordon, thus thwarted 
in his immediate object, threw up his command, 
feeling that it was impossible to continue to 
act with so orientally minded a colleague. 

After considerable negotiation, however, he was 
persuaded to return to his command, and soon 
succeeded in so completely crippling the power 
of the rebels that Nanking, their last strong- 
hold, fell into the hands of the Imperialists, 
July 19, 1864. T'een-wang was then already 
dead, having committed suicide, and his body 
was found within the walls, wrapt in im- 
perial yellow. Thus was crushed out a rebel- 
lion which had paralyzed the imperial power 
in the central provinces of the empire, and 
which had for twelve years seriously threatened 
the existence of the reigning dynasty. 

Meanwhile, in the summer following the con- 



The Rule of Women. 67 

elusion of the treaty of Peking, the Emperor 
Heen-fung breathed his hist at Jehol (1861) 
— an event which was, in popular belief, fore- 
told by the appearance of a comet in the 
early part of the summer — and was succeeded 
on the throne by his only son, who adopted 
the title of T'ung-che. Being quite a child 
at the time of his accession, the administra- 
tion of affairs was placed in the hands of the 
empress and of the mother of T'ung-che, a 
lady who had not occupied the supreme post 
in the emperor's harem. 

Under the direction of these ladies, though 
the internal affairs of the empire prospered, the 
foreign relations were disturbed by the display 
of an increasingly hostile spirit towards the 
Christian missionaries and their converts, which 
culminated, in 1870, in the " T'ien-tsin massa- 
cre." In some of the central provinces reports 
had been industriously circulated that the Roman 
Catholic missionaries were in the habit of kid- 
napping and murdering children, in order to 
make medicine from their eyeballs. Ridiculous 
as the rumor was, it found ready credence 
among the ignorant people, and several out- 
rages were perpetrated on the missionaries and 



68 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire, 

their converts in Keang-se and Sze-chuen. 
Through the active interference, however, ol' 
the French minister on the spot, the agitation 
was locally suppressed, but only to be renewed 
iigain at T'ien-tsin. Here also the same absurd 
rumors were set afloat, and were especially di- 
rected against some Sisters of Charity who 
had opened an orphanage in the city. For 
some days previous to the massacre on the 
twenty -first of June, reports increasing in con- 
sistency reached the foreign residents that an 
outbreak was to be apprehended, and three 
times the English Consul wrote to Chung How, 
the Superintendent of the three northern ports, 
calling upon him to take measures to subdue 
the gathering passions of the people, whicli 
had been further dangerously exasperated by 
an infamous proclamation issued by the pre- 
fect. To these communications the consul did 
not receive any reply, and on the morning of 
the twenty-first, a day which had apparently 
been deliberately fixed upon for the massacre, 
the attack was made. The mob first broke 
into the French consulate, and while the con- 
sul, M. Fontanier, was with Chung How, en- 
deavoring to persuade him to interfere, M. 



The T'ien-tsin Massacre, 69 

and Mad. Thomasin, M. and Mad. Chalmaison, 
and Pere Chevrien were there murdered. On 
his way back to the coiisuhite, M. Fontanier 
suffered the same fate. Having thus whetted 
their taste for blood, the rioters then set fire 
to the French cathedral, and afterwards moved 
on to the orphanage of the Sisters of Mercy. 
In spite of the ap[)eals of these defenceless 
ladies for mercy, if not for themselves, at 
least for the orphans under tlieir charge, the 
mob broke into the hospital, and, having mur- 
dered the Sisters, smothered from thirty to 
forty children, and carried off a still larger 
number of older persons to the prisons in the 
city, where they were subjected to tortures of 
which they bore terrible evidence when their 
release was at length effected. In addition to 
these victims, a Russian gentleman, with his 
bride and a friend, who were unfortunate enough 
to meet the rioters on their way to the cathe- 
dral, were ruthlessly murdered. No other for- 
eigners were injured, a circumstance due to 
the facts that the fury of the mob was pri- 
marily directed against the French Roman 
Catholics, and also that the foreign settlement, 
where all but those engaged in missionary wort 



70 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire, 

resided, is at a distance of a couple of miles 
from the city. 

When the evil had been done, the Chinese 
authorities professed themselves anxious to make 
reparation, and Chung How was eventually 
sent to Paris to offer the apologies of the 
Peking cabinet to the French government. 
These were ultimately accepted, and it was 
further arranged that the T'ien-tsiri prefect and 
district magistrate should be removed from their 
posts and degraded, and that twenty of the 
active murderers should be executed. 

By these retributive measures the emperor's 
government made its peace with the European 
powers, and the foreign relations again assumed 
their former friendly footing. The Chinese had 
now leisure to devote their efforts to the sub- 
jugation of the Pantha}^ rebels, who for some 
ten or twelve years had held almost undisputed 
possession of the province of Yunnan. The 
visit of the adopted son of tlie rebel leader, 
the Sultan Suleiman, to England, for the pur- 
pose of attempting to enlist the sympathies of 
the English government in the Pantha}^ cause, 
no doubt added zest to the action of the man- 
darins, who, after a short but vigorous cam- 



A Complex Marriage. 71 

paign, suppressed the rebellion and restored the 
province to the imperial sway. Peace was thus 
brought about, and when the empresses handed 
over the reins of power to the emperor, on 
the occasion of his marriage, in 1872, tran- 
quility reigned throughout "the eighteen prov- 
inces." 

The marriage of T'ang-che was accompanied 
with numerous and complex ceremonies, as is 
every act in the life of a Chinese emperor. 
The bride had first to be chosen from the 
daughters of Manchoos, enrolled under one of 
the eight military banners. About a year before 
the marriage all girls of tliis class, who were 
of a specified age, were ordered to present 
themselves at the palace. Between six and 
seven hundred came, and these were introduced 
into the presence of the dowager-empresses in 
batches of ten at a time. The result of this 
preliminary examination was that about fifty 
were chosen, and the rest were sent back to 
their homes. A second interview with the 
empresses ended in the reduction of the selected 
number by one half, and by a continued pro- 
cess of sifting the candidates, the lady, Ah-lu-td, 
was chosen as the "Phoenix" to mate the 



72 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire, 

'^Dragon/' While these matters were proceed- 
ing, four young ladies were chosen as *' Pro- 
fessors of matrimony " to instruct the emperor 
in the duties of the new relation, and, after 
much questioning of the stars, the officers of 
the Astronomical Board fixed upon the night 
between the fifteenth and the sixteenth of 
October for the supreme ceremony. As the 
time approached the lady, Ah-lu-te, who was 
the daughter of the only Manchoo who ever 
gained the title of Chwang-yuen, the highest 
prize to be won at the competitive examina- 
tions, and four other ladies, who were destined 
to form the nucleus of the imperial harem, 
were lodged in a palace especially prepared 
and beautified for them in the imperial capi- 
tal. The road between this palace and the 
imperial abode was carefully levelled and con- 
stantly sprinkled with sand, of the yellow 
imperial color, and each morning long proces- 
sions of bearers passed along it carrying the 
presents destined for the bride, whicli poured 
in from all parts of the empire. Cabinets, 
dishes, vases, basins, bowls, chairs, and a host 
of gold and silver articles of all kinds were 
borne on uncovered trays escorted by manda- 



Honoring the Bride, 73 

rins and troops, forming a daily spectacle for 
the idlers in the capital. 

One day, before the marriage, a tablet of gold 
was sent to the bride, on which was inscribed 
the edict elevating her to the throne, together 
with an imperial sceptre and seal. The next 
day another procession, escorting "the Phoenix 
Chair," passed along to the bride's palace. At 
its head rode a Manchoo prince, attended by 
lesser chiefs en grande tenue^ the prince carry- 
ing in his hand the jade sceptre, * which is 
constantly held by the emperor. Thirty white 
horses followed closely on these imperial insignia, 
and the rest of the cavalcade was made up 
of officials carrying banners, triple umbrellas 
adorned with embroidered representations of 
dragons and phoenixes, and fans, and bearing 
"golden melons" on long poles. 

At eleven o'clock the same evening, the same 
procession, with the addition of the bride and 
the golden tablet, the sceptre and the seal, 
started for the imperial palace. Every house 
was strictly closed along the route, which was 
guarded through its whole length by troops, 
and at the side of the bridal chair marched 

* Jade is a dark green mineral, of smooth surface, much used for ornaments. 



74 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire, 

an official of the Astronomical Board, carrying 
a lighted joss-stick,* so marked as to indicate 
portions of time, by means of which he regu- 
lated the pace of the procession, in order that 
the imperial palace might be reached at the 
fortunate moment of two in the morning. On 
arriving at the palace, the " Great Pure Gate " 
was thrown open, and Ah-lu-te was carried 
through the outer courts to the great central 
court leading to the throne room. A herald 
tlien proclaimed, " The orders of His Sacred 
Majesty are fulfilled," and forthwith the dow- 
ager-empresses came out to receive the bride. 
They placed pieces of uncoined gold and sil- 
ver in her hands, and crossed them over her 
breast in such a way as to enable her also to 
carry a vase containing wheat, maze, rice, em- 
eralds, sapphires, rubies, and other articles, to 
symbolize all that earth produces. She then 
stepped from her sedan on to a small golden 
saddle, and thus entered her future home. The 
remaining ceremonies were similar in kind to 
those performed at marriages among the com- 
mon people, and thus Ah-lu-t^ became an 
empress, and her father, catching a reflection 

*A joss-slick is a perfumed reed burned before a deity. Portuguese deos, God. 



Ah-lu-tS Becomes a Bride. 76 

of his daughter's greatness, was made a Duke.* 
On the day after the wedding, the four ladies 
spoken of above, who were destined to become 
imperial concubines of the first class, were 
brought into the palace, not through "the 
Great Pure Gate," but by a more obscure en- 
trance on the north of the palace. The Book 
of Rites of the present dynasty, which regu- 
hites every official observance in China, ordains 
that the number of these ladies should be in- 
creased to nine, that twentj^-seven other young 
ladies should be chosen as concubines of the 
second class, and eighty-one as concubines of 
the third class. All these are subordinate to 
tlie empress, who alone is entitled to enjoy the 
society of tlie emperor at the time of full moon, 
and who, in theory at least, apportions to each 
the special household duties pertaining to her 
rank. 

The cost of maintaining so large and extrav- 
agant a household is enormous, and the looms 
of Soochow and Nanking are barely able to 
supply the host of ladies and attendants with 
the silks and satins required for their use. In 
1877 the Peking Gazette announced that, dur- 

*" Meeting the Sun," by William Simpson. 



76 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire, 

ing the preceding year, three hundred and sev- 
enty rolls of satin, five hundred rolls of bro- 
caded satin, three thousand four hundred rolls 
of silk gauze, six hundred large handkerchiefs, 
eight hundred catties of sewing silk, five hun- 
dred catties of white silk, and three thousand 
pieces of fine calico, had been furnished by the 
imperial purveyor at Nanking, besides the im- 
mense stores which were poured in from Hang- 
cliow and Soochow. From the imperial proce- 
hiin factories at Kin-tih-chin eleven thousand 
eight hundred and thirty-eight articles, consist- 
ing of fish-bowls, flower vases, and ornamental 
jars of the first quality, were forwarded to the 
palace during the same year, in addition to an 
abundance of articles of a common kind, des- 
tined for baser uses. 

The formal assumption of power proclaimed 
by this marriage was considered by the foreign 
ministers a fitting opportunity to insist on the 
fulfilment of the article in the treaties which 
provided for their reception by the emperor, and 
after much negotiation it was finally arranged 
that the em.peror should receive them on the 
twenty-ninth of June, 1873. The ceremon}^ is 
thus described. "Very early, therefore, on the 



An Imperial Reception. 79 

morning of that day the ministers were astir, 
and were conducted in their sedan-chairs to the 
park on the west side of the palace, where, hav- 
ing dismounted from their sedans, they were 
met by some of the ministers of State, who led 
them to the ' Temple of Prayer for Seasonable 
Weather.' Here they were kept waiting some 
time while tea and confectionery from the 
•imperial kitchen, by favor of the emperor, were 
served to them. They were then conducted to 
an oblong tent made of matting, on the west 
side of the Tsze-kwang Pavilion, where they 
were met by Prince Kung and other ministers. 
As soon as the emperor reached the Pavilion, 
the Japanese ambassador was introduced into his 
presence, and when he had retired the other for- 
eign ministers entered the audience-chamber in 
a body. The emperor was seated, facing south- 
wards. On either side of his Majesty stood, 
with the Prince of Kung, certain princes and 
high officers ; in all, four or five persons. 
When the foreign ministers reached the centre 
aisle they halted and bowed one and all to- 
gether ; they then advanced in line a little fur- 
ther and made a second bow ; and when they 
had nearly reached the yellow table — on which 



80 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire, 

their credentials were, as arranged, to be de- 
posited — they bowed a third time ; after which 
the}^ remained erect. M. Vlangaly, the Russian 
minister, then read a congratulatory address in 
French, which was translated by an interpreter 
into Chinese, and the ministers, making an- 
other reverence, respectfully laid their letters 
of credence on the yellow table. The emperor 
was pleased to make a slight inclination of 
the head towards them, and the Prince of 
Kung, advancing to the left of the throne, 
and falling upon his knees, had the honor to 
be informed, in Manchoo, that His Majesty 
acknowledged the receipt of the letters pre- 
sented. The Prince of Kung, with his arms 
raised (according to precedent set by Confucius 
when in the presence of his sovereign), came 
down by the steps on the left of the dais to 
the foreign ministers, and respectfully repeated 
this in Chinese. After this he again pros- 
trated himself, and in like manner received 
and conveyed a message to the effect that His 
Majesty hoped that all foreign questions would 
be satisfactorily disposed of. The ministers 
then withdrew, bowing repeatedly until they 
reached the entrance." 



"-Aw Inheritance of Glory.'"* 81 

Thus ended the only instance during the 
present century in which Europeans have 
been received in imperial audience. Whether 
under more fortunate circumstances the cere- 
mony might have been repeated it is difficult 
to say, but in the following year the young 
emperor was stricken down with smallpox, or, 
as the Peking Grazette expressed it, "enjoyed 
the felicity of the heavenly flowers," and fin- 
ally succumbed to the disease on the twelfth 
of January, 1875. With great ceremony the 
obsequies were performed over the body of 
him who had been T'ung-che, and the coffin 
was finally laid in the imperial mausoleum, 
among the eastern hills, beside the remains of 
his predecessors, Shun-che, K'ang-he, Yung-ching, 
K'een-lung, Kea-k'ing, Taou-kwang, and Heen- 
fung. 

For the first time in the annals of the Ts'ing 

dynasty, the throne was now left without a 

direct heir. As it is the office of the son and 

heir to perform regularly the ancestral worship, 

it is necessary that, failing a son, the heir 

should be, if possible, of a later generation 

than the deceased. In the present instance 

this was impossible, as there was no descend- 
6 



82 Sketch of the Hlistory of the Chinese Empire, 

ant of a subsequent generation. It was neces- 
sary, therefore, that the lot should fall on one 
of the cousins of the late emperor, and Tsai- 
teen, the son of the Prince of Chun, a child 
not quite four years old, was chosen to fill 
the vacant throne. Kwang-su, or " an inherit- 
ance of glory," was the title conferred upon 
him, and it remains to be seen whether the 
events of his reign will justify so high-sound- 
ing a promise. 

Scarcel}^ had the proclamation gone forth of 
the assumption of the imperial title by Kwang- 
su, when news reached the English Legation 
at Peking of the murder at Manwyne, in the 
Province of Yunnan, of Mr. Margary, an officer 
in the Consular Service, who had been de- 
spatched to meet an expedition sent by the 
Indian Government, under the command of 
Colonel Horace Browne, to discover a route 
from Burmah into the southwestern provinces 
of China. A more thoroughly competent officer 
than Mr. Margary could not have been selected 
for the undertaking, and the choice made was 
full}^ justified by the way in which he per- 
formed the journey to Bhamo in Burmah, in 
spite of iHness and of the many obstacles 



''Brigands did it!'\ 85 

thrown in his way by the native officials. He 
left Shanghai, on his journey westward, on 
the twenty-third of August, 1874, and reached 
Bhamo, where he met Colonel Browne's party, 
on the seventeenth of the following January. 
On the eighteenth of February he once more 
turned his face eastward, in company with the 
Indian Exhibition. Scarcely, however, had they 
begun their march, when rumors reached them 
tliat the frontier Chinese were preparing to 
bar their progress. After his recent experience 
of the friendly disposition of the mandarins 
in this part of the country, Margary declined 
to attach any importance to these reports, and, 
with the concurrence of Colonel Browne, he 
started in advance of the party, accompanied 
only by his Chinese writer and servant, to 
ascertain the real facts of the case. From all 
accounts, he reached Manwyne in safety, but, 
when visiting some hot springs in the neigh- 
borhood of the town, he was treacherously 
knocked off his pon}^ and murdered. 

In accordance with conventional practice, the 
Chinese government, on being called to account 
for this outrage, attempted to lay it to the 
charge of brigands. But the evidence which 



86 Sketch of the History of the Chinese Empire. 

Sir Thomas Wade was able to adduce proved 
too strong to be ignored even by the Peking 
mandarins, and, eventually, they signed a con- 
vention in which they practically acknowledged 
their blood-guiltiness, under the terms of which 
some fresh commercial privileges were granted, 
and an indemnity, part of which, viz., ten 
thousand pounds, was handed ovei to the fam- 
ily of Mr. Margary, was paid to the English 
Government. At the same time the "expect- 
ant Vice-President," Kwo Sung-taou, was sent 
to England to apologize for this breach of 
international amit}^, and to establish an embassy 
on a permanent footing at the Court of St. 
James. With the conclusion of this agreement 
the friendly relations between the two govern- 
ments, which at one time during the negotia- 
tions were seriously imperilled, were renewed, 
and have since been maintained. After two 
years' residence in this country, Kwo Snng-taou 
i-esigned Ids post, and was sncceeded by Marquis 
Ts'eng,* a son of the celebrated soldier and 
statesman, Ts'eng kwo-fan. 

Note.— For the continuation of the history of China, up to the 
close of the year, 1894, see Chapter XX at end of book. 



*Ambassador to France during the Tonquin difficulties in 1884. 



CHAPTER IT, 



THE GOVERNMENT OF CHINA. 



HINESE 

govern- 
mentmay 
be d e - 
scribed as 
being, in 
theory, a 
patriarch- 
al despot- 
ism. The 
emperor 
is the fa- 
ther of his 

people, and as in a family, the father's law is 
supreme, so the emperor exercises complete con- 
trol over his subjects, even to the extent of 
holding, under certain recognized conditions, 
their lives in his hands, but from time imme- 

87 




88 The G-overnment of China, 

morial it has been held by the highest constitu- 
tional authorities, by Confucius and Mencius 
among the rest, that the relations existing between 
the emperor and his people are reciprocal, and 
that, though it is the duty of the people to 
render a loyal and willing obedience to the 
emperor so long as his rule is just and benefi- 
cent, it is equally incumbent on them to re- 
sist his authority, to depose him, and even to 
put him to death, in case he should desert 
the paths of rectitude and virtue. 

As a matter of fact, however, it is very 
difficult to say what extent of power the 
emperor actually wields. The outside world 
sees only the imperial bolts, but how they are 
forged, or whose is the hand that shoots them, 
none can tell. Of course, in the case of un- 
usually able men, such as K'ang-he (1661- 
1722) and K'een-lung (1735-1795), the second and 
fourth rulers of the present dynasty, their in- 
fluence is more felt than that of less energetic 
rulers ; but the throne of China is so hedged 
in with ceremonials, and so padded with offi- 
cial etiquette, that unless its occupant be a man 
of supreme ability, he cannot fail to fall under 
the guidance of his ministers and favorites. 



Duties of Viceroys. 89 

To assist him in the government, he has a 
council of state, the members of which, five 
in number, daily transact the business of the 
empire in the imperial presence, between the 
hours of four and six in the morning. Then 
there are the Grand Secretariat ; the Tsung-le 
Yamun, or Foreign Office ; the six boards, 
viz. : the Le poo^ or Board of Civil Office ; 
the Hoo poo^ or Board of Revenue ; the Li poo, 
or Board of Ceremonies ; the Ping poo, or 
Board of War ; the ITing poo, or Board of 
Punishments ; and the Kung poo, or Board of 
Works, and several minor offices, all charged 
with the superintendence of the affairs of the 
eighteen provinces into which the empire is 
divided. Fifteen of these provinces are grouped 
into eight viceroyalties, and the remaining tluee 
are administered by governors. Each province 
is autonomous, or nearly so, and the supreme 
authorities, whether viceroj^s or governors, are 
practically independent so long as they act in 
accordance with the very minute regulations 
laid down for their guidance. The principal 
function of the Peking government is to see 
that these regulations are carried out, and in 
case they should not be, to call the offending 



90 The Grovernment of China. 

viceroy or governor to account. Subordinate 
to the viceroys are the governors of each 
province, under whom again are intendants of 
circuits ; then come prefects and sub-prefects ; 
next district magistrates, and after them, a 
whole host of petty officials. Each viceroy 
raises his own army and iiavj', which he pays, 
or sometimes, unfortunately, does not pay, out 
of the revenues of his government. He levies 
his own taxes, and, except in particular cases, 
is the final court of appeal in all judicial 
matters within the limits of his rule. In re- 
turn for this latitude allowed him he is held 
personally responsible for the good government 
of his territory. If by any chance serious dis- 
turbances break out and continue unsuppressed, 
he is called to account as having by his mis- 
conduct contributed to them, and he in his 
turn looks to his subordinates to maintain order 
and execute justice within their jurisdictions. 
He has no power to remove or punish sub- 
ordinate officials, but has to refer all complaints 
against them to Peking. The personal respon- 
sibility of maintaining order makes him a severe 
critic of those who serve under him, and the 
Peking Gazette bears evidence to the frequency 



" Official Purity " in China. 91 

with which junior officials are impeached and 
punished at the instigation of their chiefs. 
The following decree, which appeared in the 
Peking Gazette of the thirteenth of September, 
1877, furnishes a good example of the usual 
charges and customary punishments brought 
against and awarded to offending officers ; — 
" A decree based upon a memorial from Le 
Han-chang, viceroy of Hoo Kwang, and Wan 
T'ung-tsioh, governor of Hoopih, who have 
solicited the degradation or compulsory retire- 
ment, respectivelj^ of certain incapable or un- 
worthy officials. In the case of Shoo Tsaou, 
department magistrate of Kiun Chow, declared 
to be wanting in natural ability and shallow 
in acquired knowledge, and of indifferent repu- 
tation — of Le Tsang-yaou, district magistrate 
of E-ch'eng, declared to have set official pre- 
scription at nought in his business arrange- 
ments, and to have made himself unacceptable to 
the people — and of Niu Fuh-kea, declared to 
be inspired with a false and treacherous dis- 
position, and to have employed deceitful repre- 
sentations in his transaction of affairs ; the 
sentence is that the delinquents be forthwith 
stripped of their rank and office. Chang Han, 



92 The Government of China. 

sub-prefect of Han- Yang foo, being decrepit 
from age, and beyond the possibility of active 
exertion, is to be compulsovily retired.'" 

Other charges, such as of opium-smoking, 
misappropriation of public moneys, and failure 
to arrest criminals, meet with like punishments. 
On the whole, the conduct of junior officials 
is carefully watched; and though it may not 
unfrequently happen that they are unjustly 
charged with offences, their causes are, when 
such cases become apparent, impartially vindi- 
cated, and their accusers, of whatever rank, 
are brought to the bar of justice. Not long 
since, for an offence of this nature, the lieu- 
tenant-governor of the province of Honan was 
dismissed from his office, and the governor 
was degraded three degrees of rank for having 
countenanced the proceedings. 

As has been alread}^ said, the affairs of each 
province are administered by the viceroy or 
governor and his subordinates, and, speaking 
generally, their rule is as enlightened and as 
just as could be expected in an Oriental coun- 
try where public opinion finds only a very 
imperfect utterance. Official purity and justice 
must be treated as comparative terms in China. 



Temptations of Office, 93 

The constitution of the civil service renders it 
next to impossible that any office-holder can 
be clean-handed in the European sense. The 
salaries awarded are low, out of all proportion 
to the necessary expenses pertaining to the 
offices to which they are apportioned, and the 
consequence is, that in some waj^ or other the 
officials are compelled to make up the defi- 
ciency from the pockets of those subject to 
them. Every legal precaution is taken to pre- 
vent this nefarious system, with the exception 
of the only one which might be expected to 
put a stop to it. All appointments are tena- 
ble for three years only, so that the holders 
of office are naturally anxious to gain and 
keep the esteem and approval of their superiors, 
and so to administer affairs as not to raise 
audible discontent among the people. On the 
other hand, it must be admitted that this reg- 
ulation is apt to tempt a greedy and unscru- 
pulous mandarin to make the most he can from 
each district over which he may hold these 
short terms of office. No mandarin is allowed 
to take office in his native province, and no 
relation, or even connection, is allowed to serve 
under him. How stringent this rule is appears 



94 The Government of China, 

from an edict lately published in the Peking 
Gazette^ in which the governor of the province 
of Kwei-chow was rebuked for not having 
reported to the throne that he was about to 
connect himself with the family of an intend- 
ant of circuit in the same province by the 
betrothal of his third son to the intendant's 
second daughter. In consequence of the pro- 
posed alliance the ambitious intendant was 
ordered to another province. All such regula- 
tions are powerless to prevent extortion in face 
of a positive necessity, and it would be just 
as useful to decree that black should be hence- 
forth white, as that men whose salaries are 
insufficient to pa}^ the wages of their under- 
lings, should hold off their hands when abun- 
dance is within their reach. 

As a rule mandarins seldom enter office with 
private fortunes, and the wealth, therefore, which 
soothes the declining years of veteran officials 
may be fairly assumed to be ill-gotten gain. 
A remarkable instance of a fortune thus acquired, 
and of the retributive " fleecing " which is not 
unfrequently inflicted on the possessors of such 
plunder, occurred in tlie case of Hang Ke, 
who was superintendent of customs at Canton 



The Victors take the Spoils. 95 

prior to the year 1859, when he resigned office. 
This man's salary was twenty-four hundred 
taels, or about four thousand dollars a year ; 
•the necessary expenses of his yamun, or official 
residence, were about eight thousand taels per 
month, and yet, when he resigned his seals of 
office, he retired with a fortune of three hun- 
dred thousand taels, or five hundred thousand 
dollars. As is not unusually the case when a 
high official retires from his post, more espe- 
cially if he is believed to have made money, 
Hang Ke was ordered to Peking, and before 
he had been many days in the capital, one 
third of the five hundred thousand dollars had 
passed into the hands of members of the gov- 
ernment. Well may we ask, Who will watch 
the watchmen? But the old proverb, that one 
man may steal a horse, and another man may 
not look over the fence, is peculiarly true in 
regard to official extortion in China, as many 
less discreet men than Hang Ke have found 
to their cost. Not long since a district mag- 
istrate in the province of Kwei-chow was put 
to death by strangulation for having levied an 
illegal assessment of six thousand and fifty taels 
only from certain communes of the Meaou-tsze 



96 The Government of China. 

aborigines within his district. The immunity 
which some mandarins enjoy from the just con- 
sequences of their crimes, and the severity with 
which the law is vindicated in the cases of 
others for much lighter offences, has a sinister 
aspect ; but in a system of which bribery and 
corruption practically form a part, one need not 
expect to find purity in any direction, and it 
is not too much to say that the whole civil 
service is, judged by American standards, cor- 
rupt to the core. The people, however, are 
very lightly taxed, and they readilj^ submit to 
limited extortion so long as the rule of the 
mandarins is otherwise just and beneficent. 
How rarely a mandarin earns the respect and 
affection of the people is obvious from the great 
parade which is made on the departure from 
their posts of the very occasional officials wlio 
are fortunate enough to have earned it. Arch- 
deacon Gray states in his "China" that du- 
ring his residence of a quarter of a century at 
Canton, he met one man only who had entitled 
himself to the regret of the people at his 
departure. On his leaving the city, the inhabi- 
tants rose en masse to do him honor. " In 
the imposing procession which escorted him to 



A Bright Particular Star, 



97 



the place of embarkation, and which took at 
least twenty minutes to pass a given point. 




A MANDARIN IN HIS SEDAN CHAIR. 



were carried the silk umbrellas which had been 

presented to him by the people, and the red 

7 



98 The Grovernment of China, 

boards — of which there were probably three 
hundred — upon which high-sounding titles had 
been inscribed in honor of the faithful minister. 
The route was spanned at frequent intervals 
by arches. From these banners were suspended 
which bore, in large letters, painted or embroi- 
dered, such sentences as ' The Friend of the 
People;' 'The Father of the People;' 'The 
Bright Star of the Province ; ' ' The Benefactor 
of the Age.' Deputations awaited his arrival 
at various temples, and he alighted from his 
chair to exchange compliments with them, and 
to partake of the refreshments provided for the 
occasion ; but the formal arrangements could 
not speak so clearly to his popularity as the 
enthusiasm of the people. The silence gener- 
ally observed when a Chinese ruler passes 
through the streets was again and again broken 
by hearty exclamations of 'When will your 
Excellency come back to us?' At many points 
the crowd was so great as to interrupt the 
line of march, and the state chair was fre- 
quently in danger of being upset." 

A somewhat similar scene occurred at T'ien- 
tsin, in the year 1861, on the departure of the 
prefect of that city. The people accompanied 



The Imperial Censors. 99 

him beyond the gate, on his road to Peking, 
with every token of honor, and finally begged 
from liiin his boots, which they carried back 
in triumph, and hung up as a memento of 
their liero in the temple of the city god. Going 
to the opposite extreme, it sometimes happens 
that the people, goaded into rebellion by a 
sense of wrong, rise in arms against some par- 
ticularly obnoxious mandarin and drive him 
from the district. Chinamen are essentially un- 
warlike, and it needs some act of gross oppres- 
sion to stir their blood to fever heat. 

A potent means of protection against oppres- 
sion is granted to the people by the appoint- 
ment of imperial censors throughout the empire, 
whoso duty it is to report to the throne all cases 
of misrule, injustice, or neglect on the part of 
the mandarins which come to their knowledge. 
The same tolerance which is shown by the 
people towards the short-comings and ill-deeds 
of the officials, is displayed by these men in 
the discharge of their duties. Only aggravated 
cases make them take their pens in hand, but 
when they do it. must be confessed that they 
show little mercy. Neither are they respecters 
of persons; their lash falls on all alike, from 



100 The Grovernment of China. 

the emperor on his throne to the police-run- 
ners in magisterial courts. Nor is their plain 
speaking more amazing than the candor with 
which their memorials affecting the characters 
of great and small alike are published in the 
Peking Grazette. The gravest charges, such as 
of peculation, neglect of duty, injustice, or in- 
competence, are brought against mandarins of 
all ranks, and are openly published in the 
official paper. No doubt it is intended that 
the lesson implied by these publications should 
have a salutary effect on the official readers, 
but their constant recurrence tends to lessen 
their value, and thus they probably serve less 
as warnings against wrong-doing than as liints 
of what particular evil practices to avoid, and 
especially of the unwisdom of falling out with 
a censor. 

In the administration of justice, the same lax 
morality as in other branches of government 
exists, and bribery is largel}^ resorted to by 
litigants, especially in civil cases. As a rule, 
money in excess of the legal fees has, in the 
first instance, to be paid to the clerks and 
secretaries before a case can be put down for 
hearing, and the decision of the presiding man- 



Refinements of Cruelty. 



101 



darin is too often influenced by the sums of 
money which find their way into his purse from 
the pockets of either suitor. But the greatest 
blot on Chinese administration is the inhumanity 
shown to both culprits and witnesses in crim- 



fT)' 




THE BASTINADO. 



inal procedure. Tortures of the most painful 
and revolting kind are used to extort evidence, 
and punishments scarcely more severely cruel are 
inflicted on the guilty parties. Flogging with 
bamboos on the hind part of the thighs, or 



102 The Government of China* 

between the shoulders, beating the jaws with 
thick pieces of leather, or the ankles with a 
stick, are some of the preliminary tortures ap- 
plied to witnesses or culprits who refuse to 
give the evidence expected of them. Furthei; 
refinements of cruelty are reserved for hard- 
ened offenders, by means of which infinite pain, 
and often permanent injury, are inflicted on the 
kiiee-joiuts, fingers, ankles, etc. Occasionally 
the tortures pass the limits of endurance, and 
death releases the victim from his miseries; but 
as a rule, in the "severe question," life is pre- 
served, but at the expense of crippled limbs. 
Tlie Turanians are so obtuse-nerved by nature 
that they probably do not feel pain as acutely 
as more sensitive races, and their nerves sur- 
vive shocks which would prove fatal to a more 
finely organized people. It is this which en- 
ables tliem to pass through the horrors of tlie 
torture-cliamber alive. It must of course be 
understood that though these tortures are un- 
fortunately common, their intensity, and even 
their use, vary with the disposition of each 
mandarin in whose power it is to inflict them. 
To many, no doubt, their employment is as 
repugnant as it would be to an English judge, 



Horrible Executions, 103 

but to have to look for mercy on the chance 
that the presiding mandarin will be of a kindl}'- 
disposition, is a poor security for those who 
enter a criminal court. 

It follows, as a natural consequence, that in 
a country where torture is thus resorted to 
the punishments inflicted on criminals must be 
proportionately cruel. Death, the final punish- 
ment, can unfortunately be inflicted in various 
ways, and a sliding scale of such executions 
is used by the Chinese to mark their sense of the 
varying heinousness of murderous crimes. For 
parricide, matricide, and wholesale murders, the 
usual sentence is that of Ling che^ or "igno- 
minious and slow " death. In the carrying out 
of this sentence, the culprit is fastened to a 
cross, and cuts, varying in number, at the dis- 
cretion of the judge, from eight to a hundred 
and twenty, are made first on the face and 
fleshy parts of the body, next the heart is 
pierced, and finally, when death has been thus 
caused, the limbs are separated from the body 
and divided. During the year 1877, ten cases 
in which this punishment was inflicted were 
reported in the Peking G-azette^ in one of 
which, shocking to say, a lunatic was the suf- 



104 The Governme7it of China, 

ferer, a circumstance which adds a weird hor- 
ror to the ghastly scene. In ordinary cases of 
capital punishment execution by beheading is 
the common mode. This is a speedy and 
merciful death, the skill gained by frequent 
experience enabling the executioner in almost 
every case to perform his task in one blow. 
On one occasion, the author saw thirty-six men 
beheaded at Canton, for robber}- with violence. 
Two executioners were employed, and they fin- 
ished their task in less than two minutes, 
neither of them having once failed to sever 
the head from the body at tlie first stroke. 

Another death, which is less horrible to China- 
men, who view any mutilation of the body as 
an extreme disgrace, is by strangulation. The 
privilege of so passing out of the world is 
accorded at times to influential criminals, whose 
crimes are not of so heinous a nature as de- 
mands their decapitation ; and occasionally they 
are even allowed to be their own executioners. 
In the year 1861, a prince of the blood who 
had been found guilty of treason, had this favor 
extended to him. The "silken cord" was sent 
to him in his cell in the Board of Punish- 
ments, and he was left to consunjniate hjg 



Judge Liinch, 105 

own doom, but his nerve forsook him and the 
jailers were ultimately compelled to cany out 
the sentence of the law. 

Other and summary extra-judicial executions 
are carried out b}^ the people with tlie silent 
consent of the officials in the case of kid- 
nappers and others taken red-handed, and their 
nature is, to a great extent, moulded by cir- , 
cumstances. If a river should be close at hand, 
the probability is that the criminal would be 
throw^n, bound, into the water; but the more 
common mode of Ij^nching is to bind the con- 
demned wretch to a cross and to strangle him 
with a cord passed through a hole in the cross, 
at the back of his neck. It is a fortunate 
provision of nature that the fear of death 
diminishes in direct ratio to the frequency of 
its probable incidence. Times of war and of 
political disturbance, when the sword is bare 
and the executioner's hands are full, are gen- 
erallv times of reckless gayety and thoughtless 
living, and so in countries such as China, 
where human life possesses, neither in the eyes 
of the judges nor of tlie people, the sacred- 
ness with which it is viewed in Europe, the 
people, far from being weighed down with a 



106 The Goverfiment of China, 

sense of the possible nearness of death, learn 
to look on its imminence with indifference and 
to despise its terrors. The uncertainty also 
which surrounds the fate of the condemned 
malefactor is apt to encourage a hope that 
fortune may be kinder to him than the judge, 
for it by no means follows that every man 
upon whom sentence of death is passed finds 
his way to the execution ground. The lists of 
condemned criminals are sent at stated times 
from all parts of the empire to Peking, and 
the Emperor, guided pretty much by chance, 
marks with a red pencil the names of a cer- 
tain proportion on whom it is his imperial 
will that the sentence of the law should, be 
carried out at the approaching jail deliver}^ 
On the morning of the day fixed for the exe- 
cution, the jailer enters the prison and reads 
out the names of the unfortunate ones, who 
are then taken before the judge to be offici- 
ally identified, after which tliey are allowed a 
meal, which is supplied either by their friends 
or the prisoii authorities, mainly consisting, as 
a rule, of some narcotic, and are finall)' car- 
ried off to the execution ground. The names 
of those left in prison are sent up to Peking 



Loathsome Dungeons, 107 

with the next batch, and those who are lucky 
enough to escape the vermilion pencil two or 
three times are generally sent off into banish- 
ment for life. In the old days, when the 
great wall was building, such criminals were 
sent to work at that huge undertaking, but 
since that time they have been banished be- 
yond the frontiers into either Mongolia or 
Manchuria. It may be that in some cases the 
indifference with which criminals leave their 
cells for the execution ground is to be traced 
to the supreme misery of their prison life, 
and to any one who has visited a Chinese 
prison this indifference is not surprising. Asi- 
atics are almost invariably careless about the 
sufferings of others, and Chinamen are no ex- 
ception to the rule. It is almost impossible to 
exaggerate the horrors of a Chinese prison. 
The filth and dirt of the rooms, the brutality 
of the jailers, the miserable diet, and the en- 
tire absence of the commonest sanitary arrange- 
ments, make a picture too horrible to draw in 
detail. During the war of 1860, as before 
stated, two Englishmen, Sir Harry Parkes and 
Mr. Loch, were treacherously taken prisoners, 
and were confined in the prison of the Board 



The Grovernment of China. 

of Punishments at Peking. The extraordinary 
fortitude of these men and the horrors of their 
surroundings may be imagined from the follow- 
ing passages from Mr. Loch's " Narrative of 
Events in China": — "The discipline of the 
prison was in itself not very strict, and had it 
not been for the starvation, the pain arising 
from the cramped position in which tlie chains 
and ropes retained the arms and legs, with the 
heavy drag of the iron collar on the bones of 
the spine, and the creeping vermin that in- 
fested ever}^ place, together with the occasional 
beatings and tortures which the prisoners were 
from time to time taken away for a few hours 
to endure — returning with bleeding legs and 
bodies, and so weak as to be scarce able to 
crawl — there was no very great hardship to 
be endured . . . There is a small maggot 
which appears to infest all Chinese prisons; 
the earth at the depth of a few inches swarms 
with them ; they are the scourge m^t dreaded 
by every poor prisoner. Few enter a Chinese 
goal who have not on their bodies or limbs 
some wounds, either inflicted by blows to 
which they have been subjected, or caused by 
the manner in which they have been bound ; 




A PRISONER IN THE CANC^JE. 



[09 



A Canton Prison. Ill 

the iDstinct of the insect to which I allude 
appears to lead him direct to these wounds. 
Bound and helpless, the poor wretch cannot 
save himself from their approach, although he 
knows full well that if they once succeed in 
reaching his lacerated skin there is the cer- 
tainty of a fearful, lingering, and agonizing 
death before him." In the proviiicial prisons 
the condition of the wretched culprits is even 
worse than in those of the Board of Punishments. 
Those who were present at the first inspection 
of the Canton prisons after the taking of that 
city in 1859, will never forget the sight which 
met their gaze. As the wretched creatures 
were dragged out to the light of day, and the 
full horror of their condition became apparent, 
English soldiers who were present wept as 
they had not wept since they were children, 
at the sight of such unutterable suffering. 
There is no reason to suppose that the 
Canton prisons are not typical of others 
throughout the empire; on the contrary, the 
gross neglect and abominable cruelty of magis- 
trates and jailers which are occasionally shown 
up in the Pehing Gazette point to the con- 
clusion that other jails are as foul, and other 



112 The Grovernment of China. 

warders are as brutal even, as those of Canton. 
Chinese law-givers have distinguished in a 
marked manner between crimes accompanied 
and unaccompanied with violence. For offences 
of the latter description punishments of a com- 
paratively light nature are inflicted, such as 
wearing the wooden collar, known among Euro- 
peans as the canque, and piercing the ears 
with arrows, to the ends of which are attached 
slips of paper on which are inscribed the crime 
of which the culprit has been guilty. Fre- 
quently the criminals, bearing these signs of 
their disgrace, are paraded up and down the 
street where their offence was committed, and 
sometimes, in more serious cases, thev are flogged 
through the leading thoroughfares of tlie city, 
preceded by a herald, who announces the na- 
ture of their misdemeanors. To give a list of 
Chinese punishments would show that tlie inge- 
nuity of man to torture his fellow-creatures 
has been exhausted by them. The subject is 
horrible, and it is a relief to turn from tlie 
dingy prison gates and the halls of so-called 
justice to the family life of the people. 



CHAPTER III. 



MARRIAGE. 



E have said that the gov- 
ern me ut of the empire is 
modelled on the govern- 
ment of a household, and at 
the root of all family ties, 
says one of the Chinese 
classics, is the relation of 
husband and wife, which 
is as the relation of heaven 
and earth. Chinese histo- 
rians state that the rite 
of marriage was first insti- 
tuted by the Emperor Fuli-he, who reigned in 
the twenty -eighth century B. c, and who or- 
dained, as a preliminary, that the intending 
bridegroom should present his future bride a 
pair of prepared skins as an earnest of their 
engagement. There is abundant evidence to 




8 



113 



114 Marriage. 

show that before this period, as indeed among 
all other peoples, the first form of marriage in 
China was by capture. The modern character 
cKii^ meaning to marry, is said to bear in its 
construction a reference to this old practice, 
made up as it is of an ear, a hand, and a 
woman, thus commemorating the custom of 
bringing in captives by the ear, as is still done 
by Chinese soldiers in time of war. On the 
evening of the marriage the Chinese bridegroom 
either goes himself or sends a friend to bring 
his bride to his house, but always after dark, 
as if by stealtli, and the ceremony, such as it 
is, is performed in his house. In the same 
way, but in a more primitive form, we find 
the bridegroom among a northern Mongolian 
tribe chasing his bride through the compart- 
ments of her father's tent, while old women 
go through the form of tripping him up and 
otherwise hindering him in his pursuit ; and 
among some Central Asiatic tribes tlie bride- 
groom chases his wife on horseback ; but whether 
the pursuit is in a Siberian tent or on a Cen- 
tral Asiatic steppe, the result is the same, the 
bride gives in at last, and becomes tlie prop- 
erty of lier pursuer. Among ourselves, no doubt, 



Chasing and Tripping. 115 

the practice of a bridegroom going to take 
over his bride accompanied by a " best man," 
is a survival from the time when men took 
their wives by force, and the bridesmaids of 
the present day represent the defenders of 
tlieir fortunate or unfortunate sister. 

At the present day marriage is probably 
more nearly universal in China than in any 
other civilized country in the world. It is 
regarded as something indispensable, and few 
men pass the age of twenty without taking a 
wife. Chinese legislators have at all times 
encouraged early marriages as having a pacify- 
ing effect upon the people. A man who has 
given hostages to fortune in the shape of wife 
and cliildren has a greater inducement to fol- 
low the paths of steady industry, and is less 
likely to throw in his lot with brigands and 
rebels, than a man who has but himself to 
thinl of, and is without any immediate ties. 
Besides this the Chinese believe, in common 
with the ancient Greeks, that the shades of 
the unburied wander restlessly about without 
gaining admittance into Hades ; so that non- 
burial came to be considered by them the most 
deplorable calamity that could befall one, and 



116 Marriage. 

the discharge of the last service a most holy 
duty. To die, therefore, without leaving behind 
a son to perform the burial rites, and to ofter 
up the fixed periodical sacrifices at the tomb, 
is one of the most direful fates that can over- 
take a Chinaman, and he seeks to avoid it by 
an early marriage. The gods, we are told, 
bestow not on men all their gifts at once, and 
it sometimes happens that the desired object is 
not obtained. As it was among the ancient 
Jews, the necessity of securing an heir is of 
so vital importance that in such cases the first 
wife has not unfrequently to make way for a 
second, and the practice of adoption comes to 
the relief of those to whom chiklren are hope- 
lessly denied. The Chinese, however, being 
monogamists, it is necessary that, before taking 
another wife, a man should divorce the exist- 
ing, one. This is not a difficult process, since 
any one of the seven pleas for divoi'ce spoken 
of later on, would be enough for his purpose. 
Like every other rite in China, that of mar- 
riage is fenced in with a host of ceremonies. 
In a vast majority of cases a bridegroom never 
sees his bride until the wedding night, it be- 
ing considered a grave breach of etiquette for 



Pre-marital Etiquette. 119 

youDg men and maidens to associate together 
or even to see one another. Of course it does 
occasionally happen that either by stealth or 
by chance a pair become acquainted; but 
whether they have thus associated or whether 
tliey are perfect strangers, the first furmal over- 
ture must of necessity be made by a go-between, 
who, liaving received a commission from the 
parents of the young man, proceeds to the 
house of the lady and makes a formal proposal 
on behalf of the would-be bridegroom's parents. 
If the young lady's father approve the pro- 
posed alliance, the suitor sends the lady some 
presents as an earnest of his intention. The 
parents next exchange documents, which set 
forth the hour, day, month, and year when the 
young people were born, and the maiden names 
of their motliers. Astrologers are then called 
in to cast the horoscopes, and should these be 
favorable, the engagement is formally entered 
into, but not so irrevocably that there are not 
left several orthodox ways of breaking it off. 
If, for instance, a china bowl should be broken, 
or an article be lost in the house of either 
within three daj^s of the engagement, the cir- 
cumstance is considered to be sufficientlv un- 



120 Marriage. 

lucky to warrant the instant termination of the 
negotiations. Should things go smoothly the 
bridegroom's father writes a formal letter of 
agreement to the lady's father, accompanied by 
presents, consisting in some cases of sweetmeats 
and a live pig, and in others of a goose and 
a gander, which are regarded as emblems of 
conjugal fidelity. At the same time the bride- 
groom prepares two large cards, on which are 
written the particulars of the engagement. On 
the outer side of the one which he keeps is 
pasted a paper Dragon, and on the outside of the 
other, which is sent to the lady, appears a 
Phoenix. Each card is adorned with two pieces 
of red silk, which have their origin in the 
following legend:-^ — "In the time of the T'ang 
dynasty — that is to say, about a thousand 
years ago — a man named Hwuy Ko while 
staying in the town of Sung met an old man 
reading a book by the light of the moon. In 
answer to Hwuy's inquiring look, the old man 
said, ' This is the register of the engage- 
ments for all marriages under heaven, and in 
my pocket I have red cords with which 1 con- 
nect the feet of those who are to become hus- 
band and wife. When these cords are once 



Red Silk and Wedding Cards. 121 

tied nothing on earth can change the destiny 
of the parties. Your future wife,' added he, 
'is the child of the old woman who sells veg- 
etables in yonder shop in the north of the 
town.' Upon hearing this, Hwuy hurried off 
to the vegetable shop, and found the woman 
in charge possessed of such a hideous little 
infant of about a year old, that in his despair 
he hired a man to kill the child. Years after- 
wards the prefect of the town where Hwuy 
Kg then lived, gave him in marriage a beau- 
tiful young lady whom he affirmed was his 
own daughter. Seeing that his bride always 
wore an artificial flower over one of her eye- 
brows, Hwu}' Ko asked her the reason of her 
doing so. 'I am the daughter,' replied she, 
'of the prefect's brother who died at Sung 
when I was an infant, leaving me to the care 
of an old woman who sold vegetables. One 
day when I was out with her in the street a 
ruffian struck me on my forehead, and made 
such a scar that I am obliged to wear this 
flower to hide the mark.' " Hwuy Ko then 
recognized the immutability of fate, and from 
that day to this red silk has been entwined 
in the marriage cards of every pair in China. 



122 



Marriage, 



Following on the exchange of these cards, 
presents varying according to the rank and 
fortune of the suitor are vicariously presented 
by him to the lad}^ Recourse is then again 
had to astrologers to fix a fortunate day for 




A BRIDAL, PROCESSION. 



the final ceremony, on the evening of which 
the bridegroom's best man proceeds to the 
house of the lady and conducts her to her 
future home in a red sedan-chair, accompanied 
by musicians who — as in ancient Athens — 




CHINESE BRIDE AND GROOM. 



At the Husband's Door. 125 

enliven the procession with wedding airs. At 
the door of the house the bride alights from 
her sedan, and is lifted over a pan of burn- 
ing charcoal, or a red-hot coulter, laid on the 
threshold by two "women of luck," whose hus- 
bands and children must be living. Sir John 
Lubbock states that this ceremony of lifting a 
bride over the threshold exists in the four con- 
tinents, and we know that in ancient Rome 
the bridegroom received his bride with hre and 
water, and presented these two elements to her 
touch. 

No full explanation has been given of this 
curiously universal practice, but it may possi- 
bly be useful as conveying a hint to the lady 
that for the future she should stay at home 
and not face the dangers of re-crossing the 
threshold.* 

In the reception-room the bridegroom aw^aits 
his bride on a raised dais, at the foot of which 
she humbly prostrates herself. He then descends 
to her level, and, removing her veil, gazes on 
her face for the first time. Without exchang- 
ing a word they seat themselves side by side, 
and each tries to sit on a part of the dress 

* It is also said in explanation tliat the fire serves to purge away evil spirits. 



126 Marriage. 

of the other, it being considered that the oue 
who succeeds in so doing will hold rule in 
the household. This trial of skill over, the 
pair proceed to the hall, and there before the 
family altar worship heaven and earth and their 
ancestors. They then go to dinner in their 
apartment, through the open door of which 
the guests scrutinize and make their remarks 
on the appearance and demeanor of the bride. 
This ordeal is the more trying to her since 
etiquette forbids her to eat anything — a pro- 
hibition which is not shared by the bridegroom, 
who, to the extent of his appetite, enjoys the 
dainties provided. The attendants next hand 
to each in turn a cup of wine, and, having 
exchanged pledges, the wedding ceremonies come 
to an end. In some parts of the country it 
is customary for the bride to sit up late into 
the night answering riddles which are pro- 
pounded to her by the guests ; in other parts 
it is usual for her to show herself for a 
time in the hall, whither her husband does not 
accompany her, as it is contrarj' to etiquette 
for a husband and wife ever to appear together 
in public. For the same reason she goes to 
pay the customary visit to her parents on the 



Women difficult to Manage. 127 

third day after the wedding alone, and for the 
rest of her wedded life she enjoys the society 
of her husband only in the privacy of her 
apartments. 

The lives of w.omen in China, and especially 
of married women, are such as to justify the 
wish, often expressed by the fair followers of 
Buddha, that in their next state of existence 
they may be born men. Even if in their baby 
days they escape the infanticidal tendencies of 
their parents, and this they will certainly do 
unless the household is hard pressed by pov- 
erty, and even then their chances are greatly 
in favor of their surviving, they are regarded 
as secondary considerations compared with their 
brothers. The philosophers, from Confucius down- 
wards, have all agreed in assigning them to an 
inferior place to men. " Of all people," said 
Confucius, " women are the most difficult to 
manage. If j^ou are familiar with them they 
become forward, and if 30U keep them at a 
distance they become discontented." When the 
time comes for them to marry, custom requires 
them, in nine cases out of ten, to take, as we 
have seen, a leap in the dark, and that wife 
is fortunate who finds in her husband a con- 



128 Marriage. 

genial and faithful compauion. If the reverse 
should be the case, the probability is that her 
career will be one of great unhappiness. Though 
society looks with a certain amount of dis'favor 
upon the practice of concubinage, except in the 
case of the wife being childless, it still fre- 
quently obtains, and gives rise to much misery 
and heart-burnings in households. A concubine 
is generally bought, or occasionally is received 
as a present. She occupies in the family an 
inferior position to the wife, and her children, 
if she have any, belong by law to the wife. 
The law-givers, accepting the general view of 
the inferiority of women, which is sufficiently 
indicated by the fact that tliey are marketable 
commodities, have provided that a husband may 
divorce his wife for any one of seven different 
faults, ranging from the disease of leprosy to 
the habit of garruJousness. On the other hand 
no offence, of whatever kind, on the part of 
the husband, gives a woman any right to claim 
a divorce from him. The consequence of this 
very one-sided legislation is, no doubt, to pro- 
mote that courteous, humble, and conciliatory 
address and manner which moralists say -should 
mark a wife's conduct towards her husband; 



Death better than Marriage. 129 

and the same authorities hold that in no case 
should she do more than gently remonstrate with 
him on any departure on his part from "right 
principles," and never so as to annoy or irri- 
tate him. 

So many are the disabilities of married women 
that many girls prefer going into Buddhist or 
Taouist nunneries, or even committing suicide, 
to trusting their future to men of whom they 
can know nothing but from the interested re- 
ports of the go-betweens. Archdeacon Gray, in 
his work on China, states that in 1873 eight 
young girls, residing near Canton, " who had 
been affianced, drowned themselves in order to 
avoid marriage. They clothed themselves in 
their best attire, and at eleven o'clock, in the 
darkness of the night, having bound themselves 
together, they threw themselves into a tribu- 
tary stream of the Canton River." 

The re-marriage of widows is regarded as an 
impropriety, and in wealthy families is seldom 
practised. But among the poorer classes neces- 
sity often compels a widow to seek another 
bread-winner. The leading paraphernalia of the 
first marriage is, however, denied her. Instead 
of the red wedding sedan, borne by four or 
9 



130 Marriage, 

more men, she has to go to her new home in 
a common, small, blue or black chair, carried 
by two bearers, and unaccompanied by the 
music which cheered her on her first journey 
on a similar errand. Some, however, having 
been possibly unfortunate in their first matri- 
monial venture, refuse to listen to any proposal 
for a re-marriage, and, like the young girls 
mentioned above, seek escape by death from the 
importunities of relatives who desire to get 
them off their hands 

A reverse view of matrimonial experiences is 
suggested by the practice of wives refusing to 
survive their husbands and, like the victims 
of suttee in India, putting a voluntary end 
to their existence rather than live to mourn 
their loss. Such devotion is regarded by the 
people with great approbation, and the deed 
of suicide is generally performed in public 
with great punctiliousness. The following ac- 
count of one such suicide at Fuhchow is 
taken from the Hong Kong Daily Press of 
January 20th, 1861: 

"A few days since," says the writer, "I 
met a Chinese procession passing through the 
foreign settlement, escorting a young person in 



Extreme wifely Devotion. 131 

scarlet and gold in a richly decorated chair; 
the object of which, I found, was to invite 
the public to come and see her hang herself, 
a step she had resolved to take in consequence 
of the death of her husband, by which she 
had been left a childless widow. Both being 
orphans, this event had severed her dearest 
earthly ties, and she hoped by this sacrifice tr 
secure herself eternal happiness, and a meeting 
with her husband in the next world. Avail- 
ing myself of the general invitation, I repaired 
on the day appointed to the indicated spot. 
We had scarcely arrived, when the same pro- 
cession was seen advancing from the Joss house 
of the woman's native village towards a scaffold 
or gallows erected in an adjacent field, and 
surrounded by hundreds of natives of both sexes ; 
the female portion, attired in gayest holiday 
costume, was YQvy numerous. I and a friend ob- 
tained a bench for a consideration, which, being 
placed within a few yards of the scaffold, gave 
us a good view of the performance. The pro- 
cession having reached the foot of the scaffold, 
the lady was assisted to ascend by her male 
attendant, and, after having welcomed the crowd, 
partook with some female relatives of a repast 



132 Marriage. 

prepared for her on a table on the scaffold, 
which she appeared to appreciate extremely. A 
child in arms was then placed upon the table, 
whom she caressed and adorned with a neck- 
lace which she had herself worn. She then took 
an ornamental basket containing rice, herbs, and 
flowers, and, whilst scattering them amongst the 
crowd, delivered a short address, thanking them 
for their attendance, and upholding the motives 
which urged her to the step she was about to 
take. This done, a salute of bombards announced 
the arrival of the time for the performance of 
the last act of her existence, when a delay 
was occasioned by the discovery of the absence 
of a reluctant brother, pending whose arrival 
let me describe the means of extermination. 
The gallows was formed by an upright timber 
on each side of the scaffold supporting a stout 
bamboo, from the centre of which was suspended 
a loop of cord with a small wooden ring em- 
bracing both parts of it, which was covered 
by a red silk handkerchief, the whole being 
surrounded by an awning. 

"The missing brother having been induced 
to appear, the widow now proceeded to mount 
on a chair placed under the noose, and, to 



Extraordinary Self -Possession, 133 

ascertain its fitness for her reception, deliber- 
ately placed her head in it ; then, withdrawing 
her head, she waved a final adieu to the ad- 
miring spectators, and committed herself to its 
embrace for the last time, throwing the red 
handkerchief over her head. Her supports were 
now about to be withdrawn, when she was re- 
minded by several voices in the crowd that she 
had omitted to draw down the ring which 
should tighten the cord round her neck ; smil- 
ing in acknowledgment of the reminder, she 
adjusted the ring, and, motioning away her 
supports, was left hanging in mid-air — a suicide. 
With extraordinary self-possession she now placed 
her hands before her, and continued to perform 
the manual chin-chin until the convulsions of 
strangulation separated them and she was dead. 
The body was left hanging about half an hour, 
and then taken down by her male attendants, 
one of whom immediately took possession of 
the halter, and was about to sever it for the 
purpose of appropriating a portion, when a 
struggle ensued, of which I took advantage to 
attach myself to the chair in which the body 
was now being removed to the Joss house, in 
order to obtain ocular proofs of her demise, 



134 Marriage. 

Arrived at the Joss house the body was placed 
on a couch, and the handkerchief withdrawn 
from the face, disclosed unmistakable proofs of 
death. This is the third instance of suicide 
of this sort within as many weeks. The au- 
thorities are quite unable to prevent it, and a 
monument is invariably erected to the memory 
of the devoted widow." * 

Formerly, these stately suicides were not un- 
frequently presided over by some of the local 
authorities; but it is said that on one such 
occasion the lady made an excuse for leaving 
the scaffold, and never returned, since which 
misadventure no mandarin has been found bold 
enough to risk becoming the victim of the rep- 
etition of so annoying an hoax. The monu- 
ments generally raised to these suicides consist 
either of a tablet in one of the neighboring 
temples, or an archway built across the street 
in which the victim lived. Monuments of a 
similar kind are earned by widows who have 
remained widows indeed, for forty or fifty 
years, and for such the imperial approbation is 
generally sought for and obtained, the edict 
announcing the gracious answer of the emperor 

♦ This practice is, however, very rare. 



Happiness Relative. 1 

always appearing in tlie Peking Gazette. The 
only aijcient bar to marriage in China was 
consanguinity, as evidenced by the the posses- 
sion of identical surnames ; but later legislation 
has declared marriages with a cousin on the 
mother's side, or a step-daughter, or a moth- 
er's sister, illegal, and, strictlj^ speaking, pun- 
ishable with death by strangulation. 

The picture here given of married life in 
China has been necessarily darkly shaded, since 
it is a rule only in its unfortunate phases that 
it affords opportunity for remark. As has been 
said of an empire, that household is fortunate 
which has no history, and without doubt there 
are many hundreds of thousands of families in 
China wliich are in that liappy condition. The 
placid natures of Chinamen make them com- 
paratively safe depositories of power over their 
fellow creatures. A man who has been accus- 
tomed from his youth up to perform every 
little duty with a punctilious regard to the 
ceremonies which are proper to it, to regulate 
every motion of his body by fixed rules, and 
to consider every breach of the elaborate eti- 
quette which surrounds his daily life, as a stain 
upon his chai'acter, is less likely to be actively 



136 



Marriage, 



cruel and violent than more unceremonious and 
warlike people ; and Chinese wives doubtless 
benefit by the peaceful tendencies of those ob- 
servances. Happiness is, after all, a relative 
term, and Chinese women, knowing no higher 
status, are, as a rule, content to run the risk 
of wrongs which would be unendurable to an 
European woman and to find happiness under 
conditions which are fortunately unknown in 
Western countries. 




nOUSF.HOI,D ORNAMENTS. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE NURTURE AND EDUCATION OF THE YOUNG. 




T 



^HE day and hour on which 
the baby is born are con- 
sidered as portentous for the 
future good or evil of the child, 
as among English north country 
folks. A child born on the fifth 
day of a month, and more cer- 
tainly if on the fifth of the 
fifth month, will either commit suicide in 
after-life, or will murder his parents. Apart 
from these and some other ill-omened days, 
a child born at noon is believed to be a sure 
inheritor of wealth and honor, and he who 
first sees the light between nine and eleven 
will have a hard lot at first and afterwards 
great riches ; while the unfortunate infant who 
appears between three and five is doomed to 
poverty and woe. As has been said by Mr. 
Dennys, in his "Folklore of China," "if the 

137 



138 The Nurture and Education of the Young, 

Chinese lay great stress on the hour of birth, 
we no less attribute to the day a talismanic 
influence over the future of the new-born 
child ; as witness the goodwives' rhyme : 

Monday's child is fair of face, 

Tuesday's child is full of grace, 

Wednesday's child is full of woe, 

Thursday's child has far to go, 

Friday's child is loving and giving, 

Saturday's child works hard for its living ; 

But the child which is born on tlie Sabhath-day, 

Is blythe and bonnie, and good and gay. 

The cries and movements of babies are care- 
fully watched by the light of the regulations laid 
down hy pliysiognomists, who say that if a 
baby cries long, he will live to be old ; but 
if his cries are constantl}^ intermittent, his life 
is precarious. Babies whose cries die out, or 
the tone of whose crying is deep, or who open 
their own eyes, or who constantly move their 
hands and feet, are doomed by the same 
authorities to early death ; while a child who 
walks, teeths, and speaks earl}^ has a bad dis- 
position, and will turn out to be unlovable. 

Swaddling clothes for babies are essential for 
the purpose of preventing contact with any 
evil influence which may interfere with the all- 



Baby's Cries. 139 

pervading principle of the season. For instance, 
should the time of year be spring or summer, 
then the life-producing principle is abroad, and 
it is of the utmost importance that the baby 
should be protected from the touch of anything 
that would counteract that principle existing in 
it. 

In the same way, in autumn and winter 
the gathering-in principle is prevailing, and 
care must be taken to ward off all contact 
with everything hostile to it. The first clothes 
worn by the infant should be made out of 
the coat and trousers of some old man of 
seventy or eighty years, to ensure a like length 
of life to the wearer. But to return to the 
pre-clothes period : on the third day after its 
birth the baby is washed for the first time. 
The occasion is one of great moment, and the 
relations and friends are invited to take part 
in the ceremony. Each guest brings with him 
or her as the case may be, an onion and 
some cash — emblems of keen-wittedness and 
wealth — which they present the child. Water, 
in which scented herbs and leaves have been 
fused, is used in tlie ablutions, and when the 
process is over, all present join in offering 



140 The Nurture and Education of the Young. 

sacrifices to the goddess of children for the 
mercy she has vouchsafed. 

At the end of the month the mother leaves 
her room for the first time, and the ceremonies 
of naming the baby, and of shaving its head, 
whether girl or boy, are performed on the 
occasion. In contradistinction to this rational 
and civilized regard for the mother, the abo- 
rigines in the province of Kwei-chow preserve 
the curious custom, known as couvarde^ which 
is, or was, also practised by the Basques, among 
other peoples.* The mother among these tribes 
gets up immediately after the birth of the 
child, and goes about her ordinary duties, while 
the father goes to bed with the infant for a 
month ; the idea being that the life of the 
father and child is one, and that any harm 
happening to the father will affect injuriously 
the well-being of the infant. For a hundred 
days the Chinese mother remains in the house, 
and at the end of that time goes with her 
infant to the temple of Kwan-yin — the god- 
dess of matrons — to return thanks for the 
possession of a child. On its first birthday, if 
the child be a boy, he is seated in a large 
sieve, in which are placed round him a set of 



Birthday Presents. 141 

money-scales, a pair of shears, a foot measure, 
a brass mirror, a pencil, ink, paper, ink-slab, 
a book or two, an abacus, and other im- 
plements and ornaments ; and the assembled 
friends watch to see which object he first han- 
dles, in order to gain an indication of liis 
future career. The brightest hopes are enter- 
tained of liis scholarship should he take up a 
book or pencil. To see him handle the money- 
scales is the next ambition of his parents, and 
the probability is that devices are not wanting 
to direct his attention to the objects which it 
is particularly desired he should touch. 

The power of a Chinese father over his chil- 
dren is as full as that possessed by the Roman 
father, and stops short only with life. The 
practice of selling children is common, and, 
though the law makes it a punishable offence 
should the sale be effected against the will of 
the children, the prohibition is practically ig- 
nored. In the same way a law exists in the 
statute-book making infanticide a crime, but as 
a matter of fact it is never acted upon ; and 
it.\ some parts of the country, more especially 
in the provinces of Keang-se and Fuh-keen, 
this most unnatural offence prevails among the 



142 The Nurture and Education of the Young, 

poorer classes to an alarming extent. Not only 
do the people acknowledge the existence of 
the practice, but they even go the length 
of defending it. What, they say, is the good 
of rearing daughters? When they are young 
they are only an expense, and when they might 
be able to earn a living, they marry and leave 
us. Periodically the mandarins inveigh against 
the inhumanity of the offence and appeal to 
the better instincts of the people to put a 
stop to it ; but a stone which stands near a 
pool outside the city of Fuhchow, bearing the 
inscription, " Girls may not be drowned here," 
testifies with terrible emphasis to the futility 
of their praiseworthy endeavors. It is only, 
however, abject poverty which drives parents 
to this dreadful expedient, and in the more 
prosperous and wealthy districts the crime is 
almost unknown. 

The complete subjection of children to their 
parents puts into the hands of these latter a 
power which is occasionally exercised with cruelty, 
as is implied by the existence of the laws which 
provide that a father who chastises his son to 
death, shall receive a hundred blows with the 
bamboo, and that sixty blows and a year's 



Subjection and Punishment. 143 

banishment shall be the punishment inflicted 
for the murder of a disobedient child or grand- 
child. So firmly is respect to parents imbued 
in the minds of every Chinese boy and youth, 
that resistance to the infliction of cruel and 
even unmerited punishment is seldom if ever 
offered, and full-grown men submit meekly to 
be flogged without raising their hands. The 
law steps in on every occasion in support of 
parental authority, and prison doors are readily 
opened at the request of parents for the recep- 
tion of disobedient sons, with one curious ex- 
ception, viz., a father cannot send his son for 
perpetual imprisonment against the wishes of 
his son's wife. Over the propert}^ of sons the 
father's authority is as complete as over their 
liberty ; he is, however, occasionally called upon 
to pay debts incurred by his son, and con- 
trary wise the son, if by any means possessed 
of property, is obliged to pay his father's 
debts. 

Filial pietj^ is the leading principle in Chi- 
nese ethics. It is the point upon which every 
teacher, from Confucius downwards, has most 
strongly insisted, and its almost universal prac- 
tice affords ground for the belief held by some 



144 The Nurture and Education of the Young, 

that in the long continuance of the empire 
the Chinese are reaping the reward held out 
in the fiftli commandment of the Mosaic deca- 
logue. '•' Filial piety," said Confucius, " consists 
in obedience ; in serving one's parents when 
alive according to propriety ; in burying them 
when dead according to propriety ; and in sac- 
rificing to them according to propriety." In 
the "Book of Rites" it is laid down that 
''during the lifetime of his parents a son 
should not go abroad ; or, if he do so, then 
to a fixed place. When at home he should 
rise with the first cock-crow, and having washed 
and dressed himself carefully, should inquire 
what the wishes of his parents are as to the 
food they would eat and drink. He should 
not enter a room unless invited by his father, 
nor retire without permission ; neither should 
he speak unless spoken to." These are not 
unheeded precepts, but are to this day ob- 
served, if not strictly to the letter, at least in 
the spirit. 

The only exception to the exercise of imme- 
diate parental control is when a son takes 
office. The emperor then stands to him in 
loco parentis^ and though he is bound to con- 



Starting for School. 145 

form to the recognized national customs with 
regard to parents, he is emancipated from their 
jurisdiction. When either of them die he is 
compelled to retire from office for three years, 
which in practice is, by a fiction, reduced to 
twenty-seven months, but in private life, as 
long as his parents live, he holds himself at 
their disposal, and is guided by them in the 
choice of his occupation and in everj^ concern 
of life. 

School-life begins at the age of six, and 
among the wealthier classes great care is shown 
in the choice of a master. His excellences 
must be moral as well as mental, and his 
power of teaching must be unquestioned. The 
selection of a lucky day for beginning work 
is confided to astrologers, who avoid above all 
other days those upon which Confucius and 
Tsang Hieh, the reputed inventor of writing, 
died and were buried. The stars having indi- 
cated a propitious clay, the boy presents him- 
self at the school, bringing with him two 
small candles, some sticks of incense, and 
some paper-money, which are burnt at the 
shrine of Confucius, before which also the little 

fellow prostrates himself three times. There 
10 



146 The Nurture and Education of the Young, 

being no alphabet in Chinese, the pupil has 
to plunge at once into the midst of the sub- 
ject and begins by learning to read the San 
tsze king, a work written in sentences of three 




A SCHOOLGIRL 



characters, each containing a scrap of elemen- 
tary knowledge. Having mastered the mj^steries 
of this book, he is taught the Tsien tsze king, 
or the thousand-character classic which deals 
with somewhat more advanced subjects. The 



The four BooJcs and five Classics. 147 

next step is to the '* Four Books," known as 
tlie Lu7i yu^ or Confucian Analects ; tlie Ta 
heo, or Great Learning ; the Chung yung^ or 
tlie Golden Medium ; and the Mung tsze, or 
Sayings of Mencius. Then follow the five 
classics, viz., the Yih king, or Book of Changes; 
the Shoo king, or Book of History; the Chun 
tsew, or Spring and Autumn Annals ; the She 
king, or Book of Odes; and the Le ke, or 
Book of Rites. This is the ultima thule of 
Chinese learning. A full comprehension of these 
four books and five classics, together with the 
commentaries upon them, and the power of 
turning this knowledge to account in the shape 
of essays and poems is all that is required at 
the highest examinations in the empire. Year 
after year these^ form the subjects of study of 
eveiy aspiring scholar until every character and 
every phrase is, or should be, indelibly en- 
graved on the memory. This course of instruc- 
tion has been exactly followed in every school 
in the empire for many centuries, and the re- 
sult is that there are annually turned out a 
vast number of lads of all cast in the same 
mould, all possessed of a certain amount of 
ready-made knowledge, and with their mem- 



148 The Nurture and Edueation of the Young. 

ories unduly exercised at the expense of their 
thinking powers. The choice of a future call- 
ing, which is often so perplexing to English 
lads and their parents, is simplified in China 
by the fact of there being but two pursuits 
which a man of respectability and education 
can follow, namely, the mandarinate and trade. 
The liberal professions, as we understand them, 
are unknown in China. The judicial system 
forbids the existence of the legal professions, 
except in the case of official secretaries attached 
to the mandarins' yamuns ; * and medicine is, 
with a few exceptions, represented by charla- 
tans, who prey on the follies of their fellow- 
men, and dispense such monstrous nostrums as 
ground tigers' teeth, snakes' skins, etc., in lieu 
of drugs. A lad, or his parents for him, has, 
therefore, practically to consider whether the 
position he has held at school is sufficientl}^ 
good, to justify his attempting to compete at 
the general competitive examinations to qualify 
him for office, or whether he should embark 
in one of the numerous mercantile concerns 
which abound among the money-making and 
thrifty Chinese. 

* A yamun is an official residence. 



Civil Service Examination, 149 

Should he prefer winning fame and gaining 
official rank he loses no time in perfecting him- 
self in the books he studied at school, and in 
practising the art of writing essays, and pen- 
ning verses. As soon as he considers himself 
sufficiently prepared to undergo the first ordeal 
he presents himself before the secretary of the 
magistrate of the district in which he lives, 
armed with a paper stating his name, age, 
place of residence, the names of his father, 
mother, grandparents, and great grandparents, 
and giving a description of his appearance, 
and especially the color of his complexion. In 
return his name is entered as a candidate for 
the next examination, and he pays his fee in 
the shape of the purchase he is expected to 
make of paper for the examination. On a day 
appointed by the magistrate, the candidates, 
who frequently number two or more thousands, 
according to the size of the district, go at day- 
light to the Kaou-pung-tsze, or examination-hall, 
in the magistrate's yamun. When all are as- 
sembled — the magistrate having taken his seat 
at a table covered with red cloth at the upper 
end of the hall — a notice-board is displayed, 
on which appear three passages from the four 



150 The Nurture and Education of the Young 

books, on which the students are expected to 
write two essays and a poem. This constitutes 
the preliminary trial, and after a few days a 
list of the names of those who have passed is 
posted up at the yamun gate. The names of 
those who have done best are arranged in a 
centrifugal circle at the head of the list, while 
the rest are written side by side perpendicu- 
larly. The next examination, which lasts five 
days, takes place after only a short interval. 
The required work on each of the first four 
days consists of an essay on a text from the 
four books and a poem, but on the third day 
an extra ode is optional, and so also on the 
fourth day are additional poems. On the fiftli 
day part of an essay (which is purposely left 
incomplete) on a text from the same source is 
required. 

Again a list of the successful candidates is 
published, and to these the magistrate gives 
a congratulatory feast. The scene is next 
changed to the literary chancellor's yamun in 
the prefectural city, where those who have dined 
with the magistrate appear before the prefect 
as a preliminary to a final examination by the 
chancellor. This test also lasts five days, and 



Competitive Examinations, 151 

is conducted exactly as those at the magis- 
trate's yamun, the subjects being taken from 
the same books. In the same way it is cus- 
tomary for the prefect to entertain at a dinner 
those who pass best, and with this feast his 
part in the examination ceases. The literary 
chancellor then next examines those whose num- 
bers — for he is not supposed to know their 
names — have been sent him by the prefect, 
and from them he selects the best men to the 
number laid down by law. These meet on a 
given day tlie successful competitors at the 
other district-examinations in the prefectures, 
when they are expected to write from mem- 
or}^ one of the sixteen edicts of the Emperor 
K'ang-he, with the commentary thereon of his 
son, Yung-ching. This completes the examina- 
tion, and on those who have survived the various 
tests is conferred the degree of Siu-ts'ai or 
"Elegant Scholarship," which may be said to 
be the equivalent of our degree of Bachelor 
of Arts. Having donned the dress proper to 
their rank, the new graduates go in a body to 
pay their respects to the literary chancellor, 
before whom, at a word of command from the 
master of ceremonies, they perform the Ko-t'o\v 



162 The Nurture and Education of the Young. 

three times. Subsequently they pay the same 
honor to the prefect, and they then disperse 
to their various homes. 

The examination for the next degree of Kii- 
jin is held in the provincial examination-hall, 
in the provincial capital, by two commissioners 
especially sent for the purpose from Peking. 
These officials generally arrive a day or two 
before the date fixed for the examination, and 
take up their quarters in residences prepared 
for them in the city, the doors of which are 
immediately sealed up so as to prevent any 
contaminating influences from reaching them. 
On the day before the examination begins, they 
move into yamuns set apart for their use within 
the precincts of the "schools," accompanied hj 
the governor of the province. During the night 
preceding the examination, or very early on the 
morning of the day, the graduates, who gen- 
erally number from six to eight thousand, 
enter the hall, and each takes possession of 
the cell set apart for him, and which bears a 
number correspondent to that on his roll of 
examination-paper. The cells are built in rows, 
and are about three feet wide, three and a 
half deep, and about six feet high. They have 



Competitive Examinations, 153 

neither doors uor windows, and the furniture 
of each consists only of three or four pieces 
of wide board, which serve as bench and table 
during the day and a bedstead by night. Each 
competitor brings with him food for two days, 
and on entering is rigorously searched to see 
that he has no "cribs" with him. As soon 
as all are assembled, the doors are locked and 
sealed, and the examiners having vowed before 
Heaven that they will act justly, and without 
fear or favor, in the approaching ordeal, the 
work begins by the issuing to each student of 
four texts from the " Four Books," upon which 
he is expected to write three essays and a 
poem. Two days are given for the completion 
of these tasks, and at the end of that time 
the doors are thrown open, and those who 
have finished their work pass out under a 
salute of three guns and the beating of drums. 
Those who are not ready are allowed a few 
hours' additional time. 

Meanwhile, on the completion of each essay, 
it is carried to the assistant examiners, who, 
if they find any infringement of the canonical 
laws of composition, cast it aside at once ; on 
the other hand, if they approve its contents, 



154 The Nurture and Education of the Young, 

they mark it with a red circle, and forward 
a copy of it to the prefect, who, on receiving 
it, beats the " recommending drum " suspended 
at his office. The original manuscript is in 
each case handed over to the custody of the 
governor, the copy only coming before the com- 
missioners, in order to prevent the possibility 
of their recognizing the handwriting of any 
possibly favored competitors. After a day's in- 
terval the students reassemble, and with the 
same formalities write four essa3^s and a poem 
on five texts from the " Five Classics." Again 
they disperse for twenty-four hours and a third 
time take their seats, or at least those of them 
whose papers have not been thrown out, for 
the final ordeal. This time they are given 
six texts on miscellaneous subjects, on which 
they have to write five essaj^s and a poem. 
This completes the examination, and the doors 
having been opened for the last time, the com- 
petitors, together with the three or four thou- 
sand officials and servants who are employed 
by the government for the regulation and ser- 
vice of the hall, pour out into the city. As 
soon as the commissioners have satisfied them- 
selves on the relative merits of the papers, 



" Belling of the Deerr 156 

they issue a list of the names of those to whom 
they award the degree of Kii-jin or Master of 
Arts. 

To the new Kii-jin the governor of a pro- 
vince offers dubious hospitality in the shape 
of a feast, known as Luh miiig, or Belling of 
the Deer, a name given to it from the fact 
that an ode from the book of poetry bearing 
that name is chanted on the occasion. The 
elaborate pretensions of this festival are in in- 
verse ratio to its merit, and in exchange for 
the honor done them, the graduates, at a 
given signal from the master of ceremonies, 
bow their heads to the ground three times 
before their host. Visits are afterwards made 
to the literary chancellor and other officials 
connected with the examinations. Immediately 
on winning their degrees, the graduates receive 
from the emperor, at the hands of tlie pro- 
vincial treasurer, a suit of clothes and a pair 
of boots; but these, like the governor's feast, 
are mere shadows of what they purport to be, 
and the difference between the value of really 
good articles and of the trash sent to the 
graduates remains in the treasurer's pocket. 
In the same way the money actually spent on 



156 The Nurture and Education of the Young, 

conducting the examinations bears no proportion 
wliatever to the amount charged on the im- 
perial exchequer, but not a coin of the unex- 
pended balance ever finds its way back to the 
treasury. 

The successful candidates, on return to their 
homes, are received with every mark of lion or, 
and the parents-in-law of each give a grand 
entertainment in commemoration of the event. 
The honor attaching to literary degrees is so 
great, and the desire to possess them is so 
nearly universal, that to suppose that the ex- 
aminations are, unlike every other institution 
in China, free from bribery and corruption, is 
to misjudge the tendencies of fallen human 
nature. It is a well-known fact that the offi- 
cials of all grades connected with the exami- 
nations are not unfrequently susceptible to the 
claims of friendship and the weighty persuasions 
of golden arguments. However elaborate may 
be the arrangements for the prevention of any 
underhand dealings, there may always be found 
means by which the essays of certain favored 
individuals find their way to the examiner, who 
is interested in the success of the writers. 
Sometimes again, a candidate, distrustful of his 



« College of the Forest of Pencils:' 157 

abilities, succeeds, with the connivance of the 
necessary officials, in passing in a clever writer 
as a substitute, who wins honor for him. If 
such practices are discovered, the perpetrators 
are immediately punished ; but the crime mainly 
consists in being found out. 

The examination for the next degree, of 
Tsin-sze, is held at Peking, in the spring of 
the year following that of the Kii-jin degree, 
and is presided over by a minister of state, 
an imperial prince, and three other examiners. 
The Kii-jin assemble to the number of about 
six thousand, from among whom only about 
three hundred and fifty are ultimately chosen 
for the higher honor. These candidates have 
to undergo a test-examination, known as Fu she^ 
before being allowed to enter at the Hivny she^ 
or metropolitan competition. Those who are 
successful in this last trial obtain the provis- 
ional title of Kung sze, until the time arrives 
for the Teen she, or palace-examination. On 
tliis occasion texts from the Four Books and 
Five Classics are given out, as at the provin- 
cial examination, and the essays are examined 
by a special commission of imperial revisers. 
The candidate who passes first at this exam- 



158 The Nurture and Education of the Young, 

ination receives the title of Chwang-yuen and 
a post in the Han lin yuen^ or " College of 
the Forest of Pencils," the highest literary 
body in the empire. The news of his success 
is carried with all speed to his native place, 
where the announcement is received with uni- 
versal rejoicing, as conferring a lasting honor 
on the district. The second man receives the 
title of Pang-yen^ or " Eye of the List," a 
name derived from the idea that he is second 
to the Chwang-yuen^ as the eye is below the 
forehead. The tliird is entitled T'an-hwa^ or 
"searcher for a sprig of the olea fragrans," a 
plant which is held to symbolize literary suc- 
cess. 

Of the remaining successful candidates about 
one in three are admitted to the Han-lin Col- 
lege, and the remainder receive the degree of 
Tsin-sze. Subsequently a final examination, 
known as the Ch'aou K'aou^ or Court-exam- 
ination, is held at the palace, at which a theme 
chosen by the emperor is given out to the 
competitors. Finally, the graduates are admitted 
to an audience by the emperor, who entertains 
them at a feast. Those Tsin-sze who are not 
admitted to the Han-lin College receive appoint- 




A CHINESE TEACHER. 



159 



Military Examinations. 161 

ments either to provincial offices, or to posts 
in connectien with the six Boards. 

These examinations are open to every man 
in the empire, of whatever grade, unless he 
belong to one of the following four classes, or 
be the descendant of one such within three 
generations: First, Prostitutes ; second, Actors ; 
third, Executioners, and the servants of man- 
darins ; and fourth, Jailers. The theory with 
regard to these people is, that prostitutes and 
actors being devoid of all shame, and execu- 
tioners and jailers having become hardened by 
the cruel nature of their offices, are unfit, in 
their own persons, or as represented b}^ their 
sons, to win posts of honor by means of the 
examinations. Not long since, an edict appeared 
in the Peking Gazette^ ordering the instant re- 
moval from the rank of Kii-jin of a man named 
Nin Kwang-to, on its being discovered that 
his father had been a gatekeeper in the yamun 
of a district magistrate in Kwang-se. " It is 
contrary to law," said the edict, "that a low 
official underling should obtain registration in 
a district other than his own, and thus fraud- 
ulently gain access to the privilege of exam- 
ination ; and it is most necessary that severe 
11 



162 The Nurture and Education of the Young, 

punisliment should be meted out in this case." 
If no reward beyond the possession of the 
degrees attached to the successful candidates 
at the competitions, the probability is that no 
great stress would be laid on the enforcement 
of this regulation ; but the fact that the ex- 
amination-hall is the only legitimate door to 
the mandarin's yamun makes it imperative, in 
the eyes of the law, that shameless and cruel 
persons should not be allowed to exercise rule 
over their fellow men. The military examina- 
tions are held separately, and though the lit- 
erary calibre of the candidates is treated much 
in the same way as at the civil examinations, 
the same high standard of knowledge is not 
required; but, in addition, skill in archery and 
in the use of warlike weapons is essential. 

At the first examination, which is held by 
the magistrates of each district, the candidates 
are expected to show their proficiency in the 
use of the bow and arrow on foot. Those 
who succeed in passing this ordeal are required 
to shoot, still with a bow, from the back of 
a horse galloping at full speed. Three arrows 
are all that are allowed to the candidate, on 
each occasion. At the third examination their 



An Appearance of Backwardness. 163 

skill in the use of swords weighing from a 
hundred to a hundred and eighty pounds, is 
put to the test, and their strength is further 
tried by lifting heavy weights and drawing 
stiff bows. It is illustrative of the backward- 
ness of the Chinese in warlike matters that, 
though they have been acquainted with the 
use of gunpowder for some centuries, they re- 
vert, in the examination of militarj^ candidates, 
to the weapons of the ancients, and that while 
theoretically they are great strategists, strength 
and skill in the use of these weapons are the 
only tests required for commissions.* 

*The responsibility for this " appearance of backwardness" rests not upon the 
Chinese, but upon their jealous Manchoo rulers, who do not wish their subjects 
trained in the use of effective weapons of war. 



CHAPTER V. 



FOOD AND DEESS. 




N a country covering so 
large an area as China, 
with every variety both 
of climate and soil, it is 
difficult to generalize on 
the subject of the food of 
the people ; and yet in 
China, owing to the ho- 
mogeneousness of the in- 
habitants, there is less difference in this respect 
than might be expected. To begin, the staff 
of life in China is rice. It is eaten, and al- 
ways eaten, from north to south and from east 
to west, except among the very poor people 
in some of the nortliern non-rice-producing 
provinces, where millet takes its place. In all 
other parts the big bowl of rice forms the 
staple of the meals of the people, and it is 

164 



Chopsticks and Slippery Food. 167 

accompanied with vegetables, fish, or meat, ac- 
cording to the circumstances of the household. 
Among some there is a disinclination to eat 
meat, owing to the influence of Buddhism, 
which teaches the doctrine of the transmigration 
of souls, and devout followers of that sect natu- 
rally avoid partaking of the flesh of any ani- 
mal, which might possibly have been their 
dearest deceased friend or relation in another 
form of existence ; but the more general reason 
for the preference of vegetables to meat is that 
they are cheaper. Immense quantities of cab- 
bages, onions, garlic, carrots, cucumbers, toma- 
toes, and other kinds of vegetables are grown 
all over the southern provinces of the empire, 
and. there are few families so poor as not to 
be able to give a relish to their meals by the 
use of some one or more of these. 

At the cottage meal a basin about the size 
of a small breakfast slop-bowl is placed oppo- 
site each person, and by the side a pnir of 
chopsticks, while in the middle of the table 
stands a big bowl of steaming rice. Each per- 
son fills his basin from this bowl, and, hold- 
ing it up to his chin with his left hand, he 
transfers its contents to his mouth with his 



168 Food and Dress. 

chopsticks at an astonishing rate. The chop- 
sticks are held between the first and second, 
and the second and third fingers ; and con- 
stant practice enables a Chinaman to lift up 
and hold the minutest atoms of food, oily and 
slippery as they often are, with the greatest 
ease. To most foreigners their skilful use is 
well nigh impossible, and at the houses of 
officials and others who are in the habit of 
entertaining "foreign devils," it has now be- 
come the practice, in deference to our awk- 
wardness, to furnish us with knives and forks. 

To return to the cottage dinner. Dotted 
about on the table are small bowls containing 
vegetables, or fish, or meats, as the case may 
be, cut into small pieces, and seasoned with 
soy and other sauces. Each diner helps him- 
self as he is inclined from these common dishes 
with his chopsticks, between his mouthfuls of 
rice, and washes all down either with tea or 
warm water. Cold water is never drunk, as 
it is considered to be unwholesome. 

The meats most commonly eaten are pork, 
mutton, goats' flesh, and beef, besides fowls, 
ducks, and pheasants, and, in the north, deer 
and hares. In some parts of the country it 



An Effectual Rair-Bestorer. 169 

must be confessed that less savory viands find 
their place on the dinner-table. In Canton, for 
example, dried rats have a recognized place in 
the poulterers' shops, and find a ready market, 
not only amoug those who have a taste for 
them, but also among people who have a ten- 
dency to baldness, the flesh of rats being con- 
sidered an effectual " hair-restorer." Horse-flesh 
is also exposed for sale, and there are even 
to be found dog and cat restaurants. Describ- 
ing one of these establishments, from personal 
acquaintance, Archdeacon Gray says, " The flesh 
is cut into small pieces, and fried with water- 
chestnuts and garlic in oil. In the window of 
the restaurant dogs' carcasses are suspended, for 
the purpose, I suppose, of attracting the atten- 
tion of passengers. Placards are sometimes 
placed above the door, setting forth that the 
flesh of black dogs and cats can be served up 
at a moment's notice. On the walls of the 
dining-room there are bills of fare. The fol- 
lowing is a translation of one : 

Cat's flesh, one basin 10 cents. 

Black cat's flesli, one small basin, 5 " 

Wine, one bottle, 3 " 

Wine, one small bottle, 1 1-2 " 



170 Food and Dress. 

Congee, one basin, 2 cash. 

Ketchup, one basin, 3 " 

Black dog's grease, 1 tael, 4 cents. 

Black cats' eyes, one pair, 4 " 

All guests dining at this restaurant are requested to be 
punctual in tlieir payments."* 



The flesh of black dogs and cats, and es- 
pecially the former, are preferred as being more 
nutritive ; and on a certain day in the begin- 
ning of summer it is customary, in the south 
of China, for people to partake of dog's flesh 
to fortify themselves against the coming heat, 
and as a preventative against disease. In the 
province of Shan-tung dog-hams are cured and 
exported ; but the price of these makes their 
general use prohibitory, and places them within 
the reach only of wealthy gourmets, who have 
a taste for this particular food. In the im- 
mense Encyclopaedia compiled under the direc- 
tion of the Emperor K'ang-he, there is a re- 
ceipt for hashed dog, which, by the number 
of condiments, the quantity of wine, and pro- 
fusion of adjuncts which are prescribed, seems 
to indicate that it was made by some one who 

* The poorer classes and epicures are the most addicted to these articles of diet, 
though they are also used for hygienic purposes by some. 



The Courses of a Feast. 171 

liked a good dish, and disliked the taste of 
dog. 

Among the wealthier classes the use of rice 
is diminished in proportion to the increased 
quantity of meat or fish eaten, and at a dinner- 
party of the better kind it scarcely finds a 
place. On such an occasion the table is spread 
with what in Russia would be called Zakuska, 
or dinette^ consisting of numbers of small dishes 
containing fruits — fresh, dried, and candied; 
chopped eggs; ham, and other tasty naorsels. 
The feast begins by the host pouring out a 
libation, and then taking wine generally with 
I lis guests, who raise the small wine-cups, 
which are not much bigger than thimbles, to 
their lips with the right hand, touching them 
with the left, and drink off their contents. 
Next follows a succession of courses, each 
consisting of a single dish, between which 
pipes are handed round and a few whiffs en- 
joyed. Frequently the dinner is enlivened by 
the presence of singing-girls, or a play is per- 
formed for the amusement of the guests. In 
the absence, however, of all such attractions 
the game of Che-mei, the Italian Mora, some- 
times serves to make the interval between the 



172 Food and Dress, 

courses seem shorter. Mr. Giles, in his "Chi- 
nese Sketches," gives the following menu of a 
dinner, which gives a good idea of tlie sort 
of viands offered by a Chinese gentleman to 

his guests : — 

Sharks' fins with crab sauce. 

Pigeons' eggs stewed with muslirooms. 

Sliced sea-shigs in cliicken broth, with ham. 

Wild duck and Shantung cabbage. 

Fried fish. 

Lumps of pork fat fried in rice-flour. 

Stewed lily-roots. 

Chicken mashed to pulp, with ham. 

Stewed bamboo-shoots. 

Stewed shell-fish. 

Fried slices of pheasant. 

Mushroom broth. 

Remove. — Two dishes of fried pudding, one sweet, the other 
salt. 

Sweetened duck. 

Strips of boned chicken fried in oil. 

Boiled fish, with soy. 

Lumps of parboiled mutton fried in pork fat. 

Frogs form a common dish among poor peo- 
ple and are, it is needless to say, very good 
eating. They are caught witli a rod and line, 
with a young live frog lately emerged from 




CORMORANT-FISHING FROM A RAFT. 173 



Frogs, Locusts and Grubs. 175 

the tadpole stage, as bait. The young frog 
which is tied on to the line, is bobbed up 
and down in the water, and it is as a result 
of their snapping at it, that its elders are 
jerked out on to the bank. In some parts of 
the country locusts and grasshoppers are eaten. 
At T'ien-tsin, men may commonly be seen 
standing at the corners of the streets frying 
locusts over portable fires, just as among our- 
selves chestnuts are cooked at the curbstone. 
Ground-grubs, silkworms, and water-snakes are 
also occasionally treated as food. 

The sea, lakes, and rivers, abound in fish, 
which are caught in almost as many ways as 
there are found different species. Cod, mack- 
erel, soles, shark, herring, shad, mullet, crabs, 
tortoise, turtles, prawns, crawfish, shrimps, 
etc., are supplied by the ocean, while the 
lakes, ponds, and rivers, swarm with carp, 
tench, eels, perch, bream, and other kinds. As 
fish forms a staple food of the people, there 
is every inducement to perfect the fisherman's 
art, and the natural ingenuit}^ of Chinamen 
has enabled them to secure the greatest quan- 
tity of fish with the least possible trouble. 
The net and line are generally used, but 



176 Food and Dress, 

in places where it is difficult to drag a net, 
or where the fish do not easily yield them- 
selves up as victims to the line, other agen- 
cies are brought to bear. On some rivers and 
lakes cormorants are the chosen instruments 
for landing the prey. The fisherman launches 
his raft, which is about two and a half feet 
wide and about twenty feet long, carrying on 
it three or four cormorants and a basket for 
the fish. Each cormorant has a ring loosely 
fastened round his neck, and when the man 
has paddled the raft into a suitable spot he 
gently pushes one of the birds into the water. 
It instantly dives, and, having caught its prey, 
rises to the surface and swims towards the raft. 
As it approaches, the man throws a land- 
ing-net over both the bird and the fish, and 
lifts them on to the raft. Great pains are 
taken in training the cormorants, and it is 
seldom that they refuse to obey their master. 
Occasionally they show considerable intelli- 
gence, and two or three have been known to 
help to secure fish too large for a single 
bird. On some rivers fishermen use, at 
night, a long, low boat, having a white var- 
nished board inclining from the side to the 



Guileful Fishermen. Ill 

water. As the boat is propelled along in the 
moonlight, a stone which is towed alongside, 
of course below the surface, makes a rushing 
noise, which so alarms the fish that, attracted 
by the varnished board they spring , at it, and 
generally over it into the boat. The fear felt by 
fish at hearing noise, and the attraction exercised 
over them by liglit is well known, and taking 
advantage of these peculiarities. Chinamen drive 
them, by beating the water, into nets set for 
their reception. Sometimes, at night, a circu- 
lar net is thrown off from boats. In the 
centre a boat is stationed, on the bows of 
which a bright fire is kept burning. The other 
boats surround the outside of the circle at 
some little distance, and their occupants beat 
the water with bamboo poles. The fish, fright- 
ened by the noise, and attracted by the fire, 
swim into the net, and their fate is sealed. 
Spearing fish with tridents is also common, 
and sharp, unbaited hooks, attached to lines 
fastened to floating buoys, are thrown into 
lakes and rivers, so as to catch any fish which 
may swim against them. 

All fishing-boats of sufficient size have tanks 

of water on board, into which the fish are 
12 



178 . Food and Dress. 

thrown as soon " as they are caught, and are 
then carried fresh to market, where the same 
care is generally taken to keep them alive 
until they find purchasers. Chinamen are not 
content to depend entirely on the open water 
for their supply of fish. They breed large 
quantities themselves. The spring tides bring 
up the rivers' fish which deposit their spawn 
among the grass and rushes growing at the edge 
of the water. As soon as the young appear, 
they are caught in nets, and put into tanks 
in boats, where they are carefully fed and 
tended until they are large enough to be trans- 
ferred to the ponds prepared for them. Here 
the}^ are fed with paste and the yolks of hard- 
boiled eggs, and are, eventuall}^ drawn out to 
repay their nurses for the trouble they have 
had in rearing them. 

Oysters and cockles are also regularly fished 
for, and form a common article of food, and 
so also are mussels, which, however, are some- 
times in another way made a source of gain. 
When fresh caught, minute images of Buddha 
are put into the shell, and the mussels are 
thrown into ponds, where they are allowed to 
remain for some time. On being fished up 



Duek-boats and Poultry Farms. 179 

again and opened, the little images are found 
covered with a coating of mother-of-pearl, and, 
in this state, find a ready sale among the super- 
stitious. In the same way artificial pearls are 
produced. 

The same care in the production of fish is 
extended to that of ducks and poultry. Not 
only are ducks bred in great quantities in the 
usual way, but eggs are artificially hatched in 
immense numbers. As soon as the ducklings 
make their appearance, they are sold to men 
who make it their business to rear them and 
prepare them for the market. Many thousands 
are often to be seen in an establisliment of 
this sort. Sometimes the purchaser is owner 
of a duck-boat, on which he keeps his numer- 
ous broods. Once or twice a day he lands 
them on the river-bank to feed, and they soon 
learn to walk without hesitation, along a plank 
to and fro from the boat to the shore. Im- 
mense quantities are thus reared on the rivers 
in China, as a proof of which Archdeacon 
Gray mentions that after a severe typhoon at 
Canton in 1862, during which a number of 
duck boats were upset, the ducks released from 
captivity were so numerous, '' that for upwards 



180 Food and Dress, 

of a mile the surface of the Canton River 
was crowded with them." Poultry farms are 
also numerous and large. Eggs are cooked in 
various ways as among ourselves, and sometimes 
are boiled hard and preserved by one of sev- 
eral processes until they are six weeks or two 
months old, when they are considered ready 
for use. 

No use whatever is made of cow's milk by 
the Chinese, though, occasionally, human milk 
is given to old people as a restorative. The 
Mongolians, however, use it freely, and make 
a kind of rancid butter from it of which they 
are very fond, a conclusive proof of the wide 
gulf which separates their tastes from ours. 

In matters of dress, with one or two excep- 
tions, the Chinese must be acknowledged to 
have used a wise discretion. They wear noth- 
ing that is tight-fitting, and make a greater 
difference between their summer and winter 
clothing than is customary among ourselves. 
The usual dress of a coolie in summer is a 
loose-fitting pair of cotton trousers, and an 
equally loose jacket ; but the same man in 
winter will be seen wearing quilted cotton 
clothes, or, if he should be an inhabitant of 




CHINESE HEAD-DRESS, BRACELETS AND EAR ORNAMENTS. 

i8i 



Qrihs in Sleeves. 183 

the northern provinces, a sheepskin robe, super- 
added to an abundance of warm clothing in- 
termediate between it and his shirt. By the 
wealthier classes silk, linen, and silk gauze are 
much worn in the summer, and woollen or 
more or less handsome fur clothes in the winter. 
Among such people it is customary, except in 
the seclusion of their homes, to wear, both in 
summer and winter, long tunics reaching to 
the ankles. Often these are fastened round the 
waist by a belt, to which are attached a num- 
ber of ornamental appendages, such as a purse, 
snuff-bottle, tobacco-pouch, etc. The sleeves 
of the tunics are made long enough to cover 
tlie hands, and partly serve the purposes of 
pockets. The expression "a sleeve full of 
snuff'' is not at all uncommon in Chinese 
poetry, and small editions of books, especially 
of the classics, are called " sleeve editions," in 
reference probably to the practice, common to 
candidates at the examinations, of concealing 
" cribs " in their sleeves. 

In summer non-official Chinamen leave their 
heads uncovered, and, though thus unprotected 
from the effects of the sun, do not seem to 
suffer any inconvenience from the great heat. 



184 Food and Dre§s. 

Occasionally coolies doing heavy work, fasten 
a fiin so as to ward off the sun's rays, by 
means of their queues, which are then wound 
round their heads, instead of being allowed to 
hang down the back in the ordinary way. 

The dress of the mandarins is strictly de- 
fined by sumptuary laws, and their ranks are 
distinguished by badges worn on the breast 
and back of their robes, and by the knobs or 
buttons fixed on the top of the cap. The 
civilian badges are all representations of birds, 
while those worn by militarj^ men, as indica- 
ting the fierceness of their nature, are like- 
nesses of beasts. Thus the first of the nine 
civilian ranks wears a Manchurian crane ; the 
second, a golden pheasant ; the third, a peacock ; 
the fourth, a wild goose ; the fifth, a silver 
pheasant; the sixth, a lesser eyret; the seventh, 
a mandarin duck ; the eighth, a quail ; the 
ninth, a long-tailed jay. The military officers have 
also nine insignia, which are as follows: First, 
the unicorn ; second, the lion ; third, the leopard ; 
fourth, the tiger; fifth, the black bear; sixth, 
the mottled bear or tiger cat ; seventh, the 
tiger cat ; eighth, the seal ; and ninth, the rhi- 
noceros. 



Badges of the Orders. 185 

Since the establishment of the present dynast}^, 
distinguishing buttons have been added to the 
caps in the case of both civil and military 
mandarins, and these are distributed among 
the nine ranks in the following order: The 
first two, red coral ; the third, clear blue ; the 
fourth, lapis lazuli; the fifth, quartz crystal; 
the sixth, opaque white stone ; and the last 
three, gilt. In cases where the same colored 
stone is worn by two ranks, that on the cap 
of the inferior one is of a deeper hue. In the 
same way the emperor wears a pearl on his 
cap, and this, together with the remainder of 
his attire, is quite plain and unadorned. On 
the approach of summer an edict is issued fix- 
ing the day upon which the summer costume 
is to be adopted throughout the empire, and 
again, as winter draws near, the time for put- 
ting on the winter dress is announced in the 
same formal manner. Fine straw or bamboo 
forms the material of the summer luit, the out- 
side of which is covered with fine silk, over 
which falls a tassel of red silk cords from 
the top. At this season also the thick silk 
robes and heavy padded jackets worn in win- 
ter are exchanged for light silk or satin tunics. 



186 Food and Dress, 

The winter cap has a turned-up brim, and is 
covered with satin, with a black cloth lining, 




A HONG KONG WOAIAN. 



and as in the case of the summer cap, a tassel 
of red silk covers the entire crown. 



Maidens and Wives. 



187 



The wives of mandarins wear the same em- 
broidered insignia on their dresses as their hus- 
bands, and their style of dress, as well as that 




TYPES OK CHINKSK CUHLS 



of Chinese women generally, bears a resem- 
blance to the attire of the men. They wear 
a loose-fitting tunic which reaches below the 
knee, and trousers which are drawn in at the 
ankle after the bloomer fashion. On state oc- 



188 Food and Dress. 

casions they wear a richly embroidered petti- 
coat coming down to the feet, which hangs 
square both before and behind, and is plaited 
at the sides like a Highlander's kilt. The 
mode of doing the hair varies in almost every 
province. At Canton the women of the people 
plaster their back-hair with a kind of bandoline, 
into the shape of a teapot handle, and adorn 
the sides with pins and ornaments, while the 
young girls proclaim their unmarried state by 
cutting their hair in a fringe across their fore- 
heads, after a fashion not unknown among our- 
selves. In most parts of the country, flowers, 
natural when obtainable, and artificial when 
not so, are largely used to deck out the head- 
dresses, and considerable taste is shown in the 
choice of colors and the manner in which they 
are arranged. Thus far there is nothing to 
find fault with in female fashion in Cliina, 
but the same cannot be said of the way in 
which they treat their faces and feet. In many 
countries the secret art of removing traces of 
the ravages of time with the paint-brush has 
been and is practised ; but by an extravagant, 
and to European eyes, hideous use of pigments 
and cosmetics, Chinese girls not only conceal 



The Deformed Feet. 189 

the fresh complexion of youth, but produce 
those very disfigurements which furnish the only 
possible excuse for artificial complexions. Their 
poets also have declared that a woman's eye- 
brows should be arched like a rainbow or 
shaped like a willow-leaf, and the consequence 
is that, wishing to act up to the ideal thus 
pictured, Chinawomen with the help of tweez- 
ers, remove all the hairs of their eyebrows 
which straggle the least out of the required 
line, and when the task becomes impossible 
even with the help of these instruments, the 
paint-brush or a stick of charcoal is brought 
into requisition. Altogether the face of a be- 
dizened Chinese lady is a miserable sight. The 
ghastly white of the plastered complexion, the 
ruddled cheeks, the artificial eyebrows, and the 
brilliantly painted lips may, as the abstract 
picture of a poet's brain, be admirable, but 
when seen in the concrete, can in no sense 
be called other than repulsive. A comparison, 
of one such painted lily with the natural, 
healthy complexion, bright eyes, laughing lips, 
and dimpled cheeks of a Canton boat girl, for 
example, is enough to vindicate Nature's claim 
to superiority over art a thousand-fold. 



190 Food and Dress. 

The chief offence of Chinese women is in 
the matter of their feet. Even on the score 
of fashion it is difficult to excuse a practice 
which in the first instance causes great and 
continued pain, and affects injuriously the 
physique of the victims during the whole of 
their lives. Various explanations are current 
as to the origin of the custom of deforming 
the women's feet. Some say that it is an at- 
tempt servilely to imitate the peculiarly shaped 
foot of a certain beautiful empress; others 
that it is a device intended to act as a re- 
straint on the gadding-about tendencies of 
women. However that may be, the practice 
is universal except among the Manchoos and 
the Hakka population at Canton. The feet 
are first bound when the child is about five 
years old. The four smaller toes are bent 
under the foot, and the instep is forced up- 
wards and backwards. At the same time, the 
shoes worn, having high heels, the foot be- 
comes as it were clubbed and loses all elas- 
ticity. The consequence is that the women 
walk as on pegs, and the calf of the leg hav- 
ing no exercise shrivels up. The degree of 
severity with which the feet are bound, differs 



Women and Walking. 



191 



widely in the various ranks of society, and 
women in the humbler walks of life are often 
able to move about with ease. Most ladies, 
on the other hand, are practically debarred 




MOTHEK AND CHILD. 



from walking at all, and are dependent on 
their sedan-chairs, and sometimes even on the 
backs of their attendants, for all locomotion 
beyond their own doors. Even in this case 



192 Food and Dress. 

habit becomes a second nature, and fashion 
triumphs over sense. No mother, however keen 
may be her recollection of her sufferings as a 
child, or however conscious she may be of the 




COMPRESSED FEET. 



inconveniences and ills arising from her de- 
formed feet, would ever think of saving her 
own child from like immediate torture and per- 
manent evil. Further, there is probably less 
excuse for such a practice in China than in 



Barbers and Pig-tails, 195 

any other country, for the hands and feet of 
both men and women are naturally both small 
and finely shaped. There is, however, no idol 
more difficult to overthrow than established 
custom, and there must be a complete revolu- 
tion in the national tastes and ideas before 
the much-persecuted Chinese women will be 
allowed free use of the very pretty feet with 
which nature has endowed them. 

The male analogue of the women's compressed 
feet is the shaven forepart of the head and the 
plaited queue. The custom of thus treating 
the hair was imposed on the people by the 
first emperor of the present dynasty (1644). 
Up to that time the Chinese had allowed the 
hair to grow long, and were in the habit of 
drawing it up into a tuft on the top of the 
head. The introduction of the queue at the 
bidding of the Manchurian conqueror was in- 
tended as a badge of conquest, and as such 
was at first unwillingly adopted by the people. 
For nearly a century the natives of outlying 
parts of the Empire refused to submit their 
heads to the razor, and in man}^ districts the 
authorities rewarded converts to the new way 
by presents of money. As the custom spread, 



196 Food and Dress, 

these bribes were discontinued, and the con- 
verse action of treating those who refused to 
conform with severity, completed the conversion 
of the empire. At the present day everj^ China- 
man who is not in open rebellion to the throne 
shaves his head, with the exception of the 
crown, where the hair is allowed to grow to its 
full length. This hair is carefully plaited, and 
falls down the back forming what is commonly 
known as the " pig-tail." Great pride is taken, 
especially in the South, in liaving as long and 
as thick a queue as possible, and when nature 
has been niggardly in her supply of natural 
growth, the deficiency is supplemented by the 
insertion of silk in the plait. The Northerners 
are less given to this form of vanity than their 
Southern brethren, and are as a rule content 
to tie the ends of the queue plaits with a piece 
of silk. Among all classes great value is at- 
tached to the possession of the queue, and, in 
the commonest forms of abuse, there is gener- 
ally claimed for the object of opprobrium an 
additional title to infamy in the assertion that 
he is woo peen^ " tail-less." 

As a general rule the head is shaved about 
once in ten days, though men who are particu- 



Razors and Shaving-Soap, 



197 



lar as to their appearance do not allow their 
hair to grow half that time. As it is impos- 
sible for a man to shave his own head, the 
barber's trade is a large and flourishing one, 
and is carried on in shops, and in the streets 









, '-II 



men's faces. 

by itinerant barbers, who carry suspended at 
the two ends of a bamboo slung on the shoul- 
ders, all the implements of their trade, to-, 
gether with a stool for the customer to sit 
upon during the operation. Among the rich it 



198 



Food and Dress, 



is customary to summon a barber to the house, 
and to most large yamuns there is a member 
of the fraternity attached, who gains his live- 
lihood by keeping the heads of the occupants 




ja street scene. 



in order. The Chinese razor consists of a short 
blade, somewhat iic the shape of a rounded 
isosceles triangle, the long side being the edge. 
Hot water instead of soap is used to facilitate 
the operation of ^shaving, which is extended to 



A Barber's Vacation, 199 

the down on the cheeks. A Chinaman's face 
is singularly devoid of hair. Whiskers are very 
seldom seen, and the mustache is only allowed 
to grow after a man has arrived at the age 
of forty or upwards. On the occasion of the 
death of a near relative, it is customary to 
allow the hair to grow for a time as a sign 
of mental distraction from excessive grief, and 
on the death of an emperor an edict is usually 
issued forbidding barbers to ply their trade 
for a space of a hundred days. 



CHAPTER VI. 



AGRICULTURE. 



THOUGH trade prac- 
ticall}^ holds its 
place as next in esti- 
mation to the mandari- 
nate, in theory it should 
follow both the careers 
of husbandry and of the 
mechanical arts. From 
time immemorial the 
Cb^'^ese have held agri- 
cLiltuie in the highest 
esteem, as being the 
means by which the soil 
lias been induced to sup- 
ply the primary want of the people of the empire 
— food. All land is held in freehold from the 
Goveinment, and principally by clans, or fam- 
ilies, who pay an annual tax to the Crown 

200 




Agricultural Boards, 



201 



amountiug to about one tenth of the produce. 
On the death of the proprietor of an estate 
it descends to his eldest son, but his possession 
is hampered by the law, which permits all his 




A CHINKSE FARM. 



younger brothers and their families to settle 
on parts of the inheritance. Very often an 
arrangement is made by which the cadets are 
bought off, but otherwise the heir has to sub- 



202 Agriculture, 

mit, nolens volens, to their presence. When 
property changes hands, the fact has to be 
registered at the office of the district magis- 
trate, and the new owner becomes responsible 
for the payment of the Crown-tax. As long, 
as this tax is paid regularly, the owners are 
never dispossessed, and estates thus remain in 
the hands of clans and families for many gen- 
erations. 

Ill order to see that farming-operations are 
properly conducted, agricultural boards are es- 
tablished in almost every district, consisting of 
old men learned in agriculture. By the'se vet- 
erans a careful watch is kept over the work 
of the neighboring farmers, and in case of any 
dereliction of duty, or neglect of the prescribed 
modes of farming, the offender is summoned 
before the district magistrate, who inflicts the 
punishment that he considers proportionate to 
the offence. It is illustrative of the mechani- 
cal ingenuity of the Chinese, as well as of 
their absence of scientific knowledge, that their 
appliances for irrigating the fields and winnow- 
ing the corn are excellent, while those for 
getting the most out of land are of a rude 
and primitive kind. The plough, which is gen- 



Farm Processes. 203 

erally drawn by a buffalo or an ox, does 
scarcely more than scratcli the earth, and even 
this is only used in the large fields, the farm- 
ers of small enclosures being content to break 
up the surface soil with their hoes. Spades 
find no place among the implements of farmers 
and gardeners, who also know nothing of wheel- 
barrows for agricultural purposes. A small 
harrow is used to break up the clods left by 
the plough or hoe, and a reaping-hook gathers 
in the crops which grow up from the scarcely- 
turned soil. The absence of good farming in 
this respect naturally necessitates, in most parts, 
the constant employment of manure, which is 
applied frequently and in great quantities. The 
varieties are endless, being not onl}^ those of 
the kinds employed among ourselves, but con- 
sists also of the sweepings from the streets, 
feathers of birds, the refuse hair from barbers' 
shops, the remnants of exploded crackers, etc. 
Of course, the climate and the nature of a 
district determine the kind of farming appro- 
priate to it. Agriculturally, China may be said 
to be divided by the Yang-tsze Keang into 
two parts. South of that river, speaking gen- 
erally, the soil and climate point to rice as 



204 Agriculture, 

the appropriate crop, while to the north lie 
vast plains which, as clearly, are best for cereals. 
Over the huge tract of loess* country in North- 
ern China, little or no cultivation is necessary, 
nor is the use of manure required. A scratch- 
ing of the light, friable soil sufficient to enable 
the farmer to sow his seed, is all that is 
needed in favorable years to secure a good 
crop. Throughout Nature there are always 
drawbacks to otherwise exceptionally favored 
spots, and this " Garden of China " is depend- 
ent for its fruits on frequent showers. Water 
runs so quickly through the soil that all traces 
and effects of the heaviest rains soon disappear, 
and a constant succession of temperate rain- 
falls form, therefore, the kind of moisture best 
suited to it. When these fail, the crops fall 
off, and, after such dry seasons, famine neces- 
sarily follows. The surface being far above 
the water-level, irrigation is next to impossible, 
and the soil, dried to a fine powder, blows away, 
leaving the seeds exposed to the destructive 
influences of the sun and wind. On the allu- 
vial plain of Chih-li the crops are not as large 
as those gathered on the loess in a good year, 

* Lo$§5 is tin alluvial deposit of a loamy nature. 



Agricultural Boards, 205 

but on the other hand they are not liable to the 
same extreme vicissitudes. The last drought 
was as severe in Chih-li as in Shanse, but the 
extremity of want was much more felt in the 
latter province, and in those covered with loess, 
than in Chih-li. Millet Indian corn, wheat and 
barley, are largely grown in the northern half 
of the empire. 

An entirely different system is pursued in 
the cultivation of rice. The rice-fields are 
fenced in with low banks, the surface of soil 
being kept as much on a level as possible. 
Manure in large quantities is first of all strewn 
over the fields, which are then flooded with 
water. When in this condition the farmer 
wades on to the ground with liis plough and 
buffalo, and turns up the slush and mud until 
tlie manure has become thoroughly mixed with 
the soil. His next object is to discover, by 
means of his almanac, or by the advice of a 
fortune-teller, a propitious day for sowing his 
seed. This is generally sown in one corner of 
the field, and the plants, as soon as they have 
grown to a sufficient size, are transplanted in 
straight rows. 

The necessity for a copious supply of water 



206 Agriculture. 

continues during the early growth of the plant, 
and as this supply is not by any means always* 
obtainable from the usual resources of nature, 
artificial irrigation has to be largely resorted 
to. In securing the constant supply of water 
thus needed, the mechanical genius of the 
people has full play, and the contrivances in- 
vented and employed by them are ingenious 
and effective. If the difference of level be- 
tween the supply of water (either a river or 
a pond), and the field to be irrigated, be but 
slight, a bucket held between two men, by 
ropes attached to its side, is commonly used. 
The men stand on the bank of the field, and 
by a constantly swinging motion fill the bucket 
and empty it on to the soil. When the differ- 
ence of level is such as to make this plan im- 
possible, a water-wheel with an endless chain- 
pnmp is u?ed. This ingenious contrivance is 
thus described by Mr. Doolittle : " One end of 
the box in which the chain, or rather rope, 
and its buckets pass, is placed at an angle of 
forty-five degrees, more or less, with the river, 
canal, or pond, whence tlie water is to be 
brought upon the neighboring fields. This box 
is open at the top and both ends, and made 



Water- Wheels, 



207 



very strong and light, one man carrying the 
•whole apparatus with ease on his shoulders. 
The chain, with its buckets, passes over a 
horizontal shaft, which is supported by two 




CHINESE AGKICULTUKE. 



perpendicular posts. One or more persons, 
steadying themselves by leaning upon a hori- 
zontal pole four or five feet higher than 
the shaft, and by walking or stepping briskly 



208 Agriculture, 

on short, radiating arms cause it to revolve on 
its axis, bringing up the water, which pours 
out of the upper end of the box. The faster 
the men walk, or step, the greater the quantity 
of water pumped up." 

In some parts of the country oxen or don- 
keys are employed to turn the water-wheels, 
by means of horizontal cogged wheels which 
turn the shaft over which the buckets pass. 
Occasionally, when practicable, a stream supplies 
the motive-power, which transports a portion of 
itself to the field above. When the supply of 
water has to be drawn from a well, an up- 
right post, some ten or twelve feet high, is 
fixed near it, on which a long cross-beam is 
balanced. From one end of this beam hangs 
a bucket, while on the other extremity is fas- 
tened a weight, generally a large stone, which 
is so regulated that the only exertion required 
is to lower the bucket into the well. The 
stone at the end of the beam brings the bucket 
to the surface by its weight, and the water is 
then emptied into a conduit wliich carries it 
to the field or garden where it is required. 

The crop is generally fit for the harvest a hun- 
dred days after the seed is put in. When it 



Rice Cultivation, 209 

is cut, as it generally is, close to the ground, 
a sickle is used, and the sheaves are bound up 
and put into shocks, as corn is among oar- 
selves ; but in some parts of the country the 
ears only are reaped, and when this is the case, 
the reaper drags after him a basket on a small 
wheeled-truck, into which he throws the ears 
as he severs them with a knife. 

The act of threshing is performed in different 
ways, in different parts of the country. Some- 
times the thresher takes a double handful of 
the stalks, and strikes them against the bars of 
an open frame in such a way that the grain falls 
through to the ground ; sometimes, instead of 
an open frame, a tub is used, against the in- 
side of which the stalks are struck. In other 
places they are carried to a carefully swept 
threshing-floor, and are then threshed out with 
flails. Not unfrequently, also, the grain is trod- 
den out by buffaloes, mules, or ponies, or is sepa- 
rated from the ear by means of rollers drawn by 
beasts of draught. Winnowing, in its most prim- 
itive form, is practised by many of the smallei 
farmers. A windy day is chosen to throw the 
grain and husks up in the air from the thresh- 
ing-floor, with the usual result. But quite as 
14 



210 Agriculture. 

generall}^ machines, not unlike those in use 
among ourselves, are employed. Most of these 
are turned by hand, but others draw their mo- 
tive power either from water-wheels, or from 
oxen or donkeys. The mills for grinding grain 
are worked by the same agencies. Tobacco, 
beans, tea-oil, sweet potatoes, turnips, onions, 
fruits, and tea, are among the best-known pro- 
ducts of Southern China. 

The tea-plant, which resembles a whortle- 
berry, is grown from seed which is gathered in 
the winter months, and dried in the sun. In 
the beginning of the following spring the seeds 
are moistened and dried again, until they be- 
gin to sprout, when they are lightly covered 
with earth. As soon as the plants have grown 
four or five inches in height they are trans- 
planted to the plantations, where thej^ are ar- 
ranged in rows at a distance of two or three 
feet apart. No manui'le is used in the culti- 
vation, but great care is taken to keep the 
ground clear from weeds. The blossom is white 
and is not unlike the orange-flower, and blooms 
in November. The plant itself, which is an 
evergreen, is allowed to grow to heights vary, 
ing with, the necessities of the plantations. In 







<{yM»p4 



, S 'm\' 



Cultivating Tea, 213 

high and exposed positions it is kept low, 
that it may avoid injury from storms and 
wind, while in more sheltered places it reaches 
the height of six or eight feet. The first crop 
of leaves is gathered from it at the end of 
the third year, but care is taken not to ex- 
haust the plant by stripping it too closely. 
Thrice in the year the leaves are picked, in 
the third, fifth, and eighth months. The best 
leaves are the young ones, and, as the 3^oung- 
est are first picked, the earliest gathering is 
the best. Women and children are mainly em- 
ployed in this work. Having been first dried 
in the sun, the leaves are then trodden out 
b)?" naked-footed laborers, in order to break the 
fibres and extract the moisture. This done, 
they are heaped up and allowed to heat for 
some hours, until they have become a reddish- 
brown color. They are next rolled up by the 
hand, and are afterwards again exposed to the 
sun should the weather be propitious, but if 
not, they are slowly baked over charcoal fires. 
With this process their preparation for the 
market is complete, and they pass from the 
hands of the growers to those of the native 
merchants. By these purchasers they are care- 



214 



Agriculture, 



fully sifted, the leaves of different sizes and 
ages are separated, and the stems and damaged 
leaves are removed. They are then thoroughly 
dried in iron pans over slow fires, and are 
shipped to Europe and America. These pro- 




ROASTING TEA. 



cesses differ slightly in the case of some teas, 
but they are all dried, trodden on, baked, and 
rolled, excepting green tea, which is not dried 
in the sun, but is fired, and rubbed with the 
hands instead of being trodden on. The prin- 



Varieties of Tea, 



21. 



cipal kinds of tea exported are Congou, which 
is grown in the provinces of Hoonan and 




IX A TEA-SHOP. 



Kwang-tung ; Souchong, the best of which is 
produced in the northeastern part of the pro- 
vince of Fuh-keen ; Flowery Pekoe and Oolong, 



216 



Agriculture. 



or " Black dragon " which also comes from 
Fuh-keen ; scented Orange Pekoe and scented 
capers, from Kwang-tung and Fuh-keen ; and 




PREPARIXG TEA. 



green tea from the neighborhood of Woo3'uen 
in Keang-se. Tea is drunk universally through- 
out the empire by all except those who are 



How to Brink Tea. 217 

too poor to buy it ; but this was not always 
the case. In some places, as at Hang-chow, 
for example, wine-shops used to be as numer- 
ous as tea-shops are now. To the honor of the 
temperance of the people it is to be said, 
that when tea-shops were first introduced, they 
were received with such favor, that the publi- 
cans had to shut up their establishments. The 
price of teas in the country varies enormously, 
the common kinds being ver}^ cheap, while some 
of the choicest sorts fetch among native epi- 
cures such prices as make the export of them 
impossible. The orthodox way of making tea 
is to put a pinch of the leaves into a cup and 
to pour boiling water on them, the drinker 
being protected from swallowing the leaves by 
an inverted saucer, which covers the cup, and 
which is so held as to keep back the leaves 
during the act of drinking. Among the poorer 
classes, when tea is made for a number of per- 
sons, tea-pots are used, and the landlords of 
wayside inns, and charitable people who seek 
to win for themselves a happy future, by at- 
tending to the comforts of travellers here on 
earth, provide at stations along the high-road 
brews of the compound in large vessels. 



218 Agriculture, 

In point of antiquity the use of tea cannot 
compare with the cultivation of silk. History 
tells us that Se-ling she, the wife of Shin-nnng 
(B. c. 2737-2697), was the first spinner of silk 
and weaver of cloth, for which discovery she 
has been canonized, and is annually worshiped 
on a certain day in the ninth month. On that 
occasion the empress and her ladies perform 
devotions at her shrine ; and as the emperor 
sets an example of industry to the agricultu- 
rists throughout the empire, by ploughing a 
piece of land at the opening of spring, so the 
empress and her court stimulate the busj^ fin- 
gers of Cliinese housewives, by going tlirough 
the form of collecting mulberry -leaves, feeding 
the palace silk-worms, and winding off some 
cocoon of silks. 

The eastern, central and southern provinces 
of the empire are the home of the silk in- 
dustry. There the mulberry-trees flourish, and 
there the climate best suits the insects. Great 
care is taken by the breeders in the choice 
and matching of the cocoons, and unhealthy or 
in any way deformed moths are destroyed as 
soon as the}^ free themselves from their shells. 
"The number of eggs which one moth lays," 



Silk Industry. 219 

says Archdeacon Gray, "is generally five hun- 
dred, and the period required for her to per- 
form so great a labor is, I believe, about 
seventy-four hours. The females often die al- 
most immediately after they have laid their 
eggs, and the males do not long survive them. 
The e^g of the silkworm, uhich is of a 
whiteish or pale ash color, is not larger than 
a grain of mustard-seed. When eighteen days 
old the eggs are carefully washed with spring- 
water. Tlie sheet of coarse paper or piece of 
cloth on which they are laid, and to which 
they adhere, is very gently drawn through 
spring-water contained in a wooden or earthen- 
ware bowl. During the autumnal months the 
eggs are carefully kept in a cool chamber, the 
sheets of paper or pieces of cloth being sus- 
pended back to back from bamboo-rods placed 
in a horizontal position. In the tenth month 
of the Chinese year .... the sheets are 
rolled up, and then deposited in a room, which 
is well swept, and free from all noxious in- 
fluences. On the third day of the twelfth 
month the eggs are again washed, and then ex- 
posed in the air to dry. In the spring of the 
year, the eggs being now ready to be brought 



220 Agriculture, 

forth, the sheets are placed on mats, and each 
mat placed on a bamboo shelf, in a well- 
gwept and well-warmed chamber, containing a 
series of shelves arranged along the walls. 
The shelves are almost invariably made of bam- 
boo, the wood of which emits no fragrance, 
aromatic wood being especially avoided as un- 
suitable for the purpose." 

As soon as the worms are hatched they are 
carefully tended and fed. Twice every hour 
during the first few days of their existence, 
they are given chopped mulberry-leaves. Grad- 
ually this number of meals is reduced to three 
or four in the day, when occasionally green- 
pea, black-bean, or rice-flour, is mixed with 
their staple food. On the fourth or fifth day 
of their lives they fall into a sleep known 
among the Chinese as the "hair sleep," which 
lasts for twenty-four hours. Twice again, after 
similar periods, they enjoy long slumbers, and 
on the twenty-second day a deep sleep of still 
longer duration overtakes them. During these 
periods of rest the worms cast their skins, and 
finally reach their full size at the end of a 
month, when they appear of a deep yellow 
color, and about the thickness of a man's little 



Silk Worms and Cleanliness. jJ21 

finger. After arriving at maturity the worms 
cease to eat, and begin to spin. As the silk 
issues from tlieir mouths they move their heads 
from side to side, and thus envelope themselves 
in cocoons. When completely enclosed, they 
fall into a state of coma, and become chrj^sales. 
The shelves on which they are, are then placed 
near a fire to kill the chrysalids, which, when 
accomplished, the silk is unwound and the 
chrysalids are eaten. 

As many superstitions surround the cultiva- 
tion of silkworms as encumber every other 
occupation in China, and, as might be supposed, 
most of them are founded on natural causes. 
Such are the beliefs based on the silkworm's 
love of cleanliness, that persons before enter- 
ing the room where they are kept, should be 
sprinkled with water in which mulberry-leaves 
have been soaked ; that no fish should on 
any account be brought into the chamber; 
that no woman who is pregnant, or who has 
lately become a mother, should have anything 
to do with them ; and that no one smelling 
of wine, ginger, garlic, or anything aromatic, 
should approach them. Speaking generally, the 
male principle is believed to be congenial to 



222 Agriculture. 

them, and the female principle to be the re- 
verse. If this be really so, they are most 
unfortunate insects, since they are attended 
to almost exclusively by women and girls. 
They are also said to be peculiarly suscepti- 
ble to thunder, and to all sudden and violent 
noises. 

The looms for weaving the silk are simple 
in construction, and are similar to the hand- 
looms used in Europe. The principal seats of 
the silk manufacture are Soo-chow, Hang-chow, 
Nanking, and Canton. The three places first 
named are noted for the beauty of their silk 
stuffs, and they are those from which the im- 
perial palace receives its annual stores. The 
Peking Gazette acknowledged the receipt from 
Soo-chow, in 1877, of a thousand rolls of satin 
for the Board of Revenue, and for the palace 
three hundred and seventy rolls of satin, three 
thousand four hundred rolls of silk gauze, six 
hundred large handkerchiefs, eight hundred cat- 
ties * of sewing silk, five hundred catties of 
white silk, and three thousand pieces of fine 
calico ; while at the same time the superin- 
tendent of the imperial manufactory at Nan- 

*A catty is equal to about a pound and a quarter. 



The Wild Silkworm. 225 

king reported the completion of an order for 
five hundred rolls of yellow brocaded satin. 
Canton is famous for its gauzes, and Pak-kow, 
in the province of Kwang-tung, for its crape 
shawls. 

Besides the cultivated silkworms, there is, in 
less favored parts of the empire, a kind known 
as "the wild silkworm," which feeds as sur- 
rounding circumstances determine, on either the 
leaves of the pepper-tree, or the ash, or a par- 
ticular kind of oak. This species is far less 
manageable than its mulberry-fed relative, and 
is infinitely more hardy. Much less trouble is 
bestowed on the worms by the breeders, but 
though the return of silk they yield is con- 
siderable, it is not to be compared with the 
other kind, either in beauty or fineness. In 
the province of Shan-tung a great quantity of 
Nankeen silk is made from the cocoons spun 
by the " wild silkworms " of that province, and 
in Sze-chuen a large trade is carried on in 
silk similarly manufactured. Though inferior in 
quality to that grown in Eastern China, yet 
in strength and durability Sze-chuen silk is far 
superior to it, and is able to compete success- 
fully with it in the market. Being purely a 
15 



226 Agriculture, 

Chinese product, silk was introduced into Eu- 
rope by its native name (Sze), which it still 
retains under a guise sufficiently flimsy to leave 
it quite recognizable. The same is the case 
with satin (Sze-tun), and tea (Te). 

Another product peculiar to China is white 
insect wax. This curious substance is produced 
exclusively in the prefecture of Kea-ting Foo, 
in Sze-chuen, the climate of which district 
appears to favor the propagation of the disease, 
which is believed by the natives to be the 
cause of the secretion of the wax. This be- 
lief is supported by the fact that, in the dis- 
tricts where the insects breed, only a small 
quantity of wax is made, and experience has 
therefore taught the natives the advantage of 
breeding the insects in one district and remov- 
ing them to another to produce the wax. The 
neighborhood of Keen-chang, in the south of 
the province, has been found most suitable for 
breeding-purposes, and it is there, therefore, 
that the breeding-processes are carried on, on 
a particular kind of evergreen tree, with large 
ovate leaves. At the end of April, the breed- 
ers start, each with a load of the insects' eggs, 
for the district of Kea-ting Foo, a journey 



No Head^ no Eyes, no Feet, 227 

which, when made on foot, occupies about a 
fortnight. The road between the two districts 
is very mountainous, and as exposure to the 
heat of the sun would hatch the eggs too 
rapidly, the men travel only by night. At 
Kea-ting Foo the eggs are eagerly bought up, 
and are at once put upon the wax-tree. 
" When the egg balls are procured," writes 
Baron Richthofen, " they are folded up, six or 
seven together, in a bag of palm-leaves. These 
bags are suspended on the twigs of the trees. 
This is all the human labor required. After a 
few days the insects commence coming out. 
They spread as a brownish film over the twigs, 
but do not touch the leaves. The Chinese 
describe them as having neither shape, nor 
head, nor eyes, nor feet. It is known that 
the insect is a species of coccus. Gradually, 
while the insect is growing, the surface of the 
twigs becomes encrustated with a white wax. 
No care whatever is required. The insect has 
no enemy, and is not even touched by ants. 
In the latter half of August the twigs are cut 
off and boiled in water, when the wax rises 
to the surface. It is then melted and poured 
into deep pans. It cools down to a translu- 



228 



Agriculture, 



cent and highly-crystalline substance. Two 
taels * weight of eggs produce from two to 
three catties of wax." 

*A tael is equal to about an ounce. Sixteen make a pound. 




CHAPTER VII. 



MEDICINE. 




n~^HE medical art in 
China has a long 
ancestry, and dates 
back to the time 
when Hwang-te is 
said to have invent- 
ed mnsic, and many 
other arts which ad- 
ded to the elegan- 
cies and comforts of 
life. The prevalence of disease and death 
among his subjects so affected him that, as 
it is said, he wrested from nature a knowl- 
edge of the operations of her opposing prin- 
ciples, and of the virtues of herbs and other 
medical remedies. The results of these studies 
he embodied in a work entitled the Nuy king^ 
or the " Classic of the Interior," by means of 

229 



230 Medicine. 

the knowledge contained in which, disease losl: 
half its terrors, and the length of human life 
was extended. 

Chinese authors assume, with that complete 
self-complacency which is common to them, 
that the wide medical knowledge which was 
imparted to the world by Hwang-te, has since 
been so vastly increased that at the present 
time the science of medicine in China has 
reached its highest development. An acquaint- 
ance, however, with their medical practice and 
pharmacopoeia completely dispels this delusion, 
and brings us face to face with the fact that 
their knowledge of medicine is entirely empiri- 
cal, and is based neither on accurate observa- 
tion nor scientific research. Of physiology, or 
of human and comparative anatomy, they know 
nothing. The functions of the heart, lungs, liver, 
kidneys and brain are sealed books to them, and 
they recognize no distinction between veins 
and arteries, and between nerves and tendons. 
Their deeply-rooted repugnance to the use of 
the knife in surgery, or to post-mortem exam- 
inations, prevent the possibility of their acquir- 
ing any accurate knowledge of the human 
frame, and their notion of the position of the 



Ignorant Empiricism. 231 

various organs is almost as wild as their idea 
of their different functions ; which is saying a 
good deal, when one recollects that they con- 
sider that from the heart and pit of the stom- 
ach all ideas and delights proceed, and that 
the gall-bladder is the seat of courage. So 
firmly is tliis last belief held, and so strange 
is the perversion of their ideas on the subject 
of processes through which all food has to go, 
that it is not uncommon for men desirous of 
gaining additional courage to devour the gall 
of savage beasts, and even of notorious mur- 
derers and rebels who have expiated their 
crimes at the hand of the executioner. 

No Harvey has arisen in China to enlighten 
his countrymen on the circulation of the blood, 
and beyond having a general notion that it 
ebbs and flows, they know nothing of its 
movements. They even consider that there is 
a difference in the pulses on the two wrists, 
and not only this, but that there are differ- 
ences to be observed in each pulse. And this 
they profess to account for by saying that the 
different parts of the pulse reflect the condi- 
tion of the organs which they represent. For 
example, the parts of the pulse on the left 



232 Medicine. 

wrist are believed to discover the state of the 
heart, small intestines, liver, gall-bladder, kid- 
neys, and bladder; while those on the right 
wrist reflect the condition of the lungs, larger 
intestines, spleen, stomach, gate of life, and 
membranes of the viscera. There are, also, they 
consider, seven distinct indications, given by 
the pulse, on the approach of death, and each 
of the seven passions is represented by pulsa- 
tions which may be distinguished. 

Man's body is believed to be composed of 
the five elements — fire, water, metal, wood, and 
earth — all of which are mysteriously connected 
with the five planets, five tastes, five colors, 
five metals, and five viscera. To keep these 
five antagonistic principles in harmony is the 
duty of the physician, and to restore the 
equilibrium when any one of them is in ex- 
cess or deficiency, is the main object of his 
endeavors. 

The medical profession in China is in every 
sense an open one. There are no medical col- 
leges, and no examination-tests exist to worry 
the minds of the would-be practitioners. Neither 
are diplomas asked for or granted. Any quack 
or the most ignorant bumpkin may become a 



Quack Doctors^' 233 

practising physician, and by his success or non- 
success in the profession, he stands or falls. 

Speaking generally, doctors in China may be 
divided into three classes : — namely, those who 
have inherited prescriptions of merit; men, who 
having failed at the examinations, have taken 
to the study of medicine ; and the merest 
quacks. This classification is intelligible when 
it is remembered that the practice of medicine 
is not based on any well-ascertained knowledge, 
but is simply empirical, and consists mainly in 
the use of herbs and vegetable medicines. 
Many an old woman in the countrj^ districts 
of America or England has as useful a phar- 
macopoeia as the most prosperous Chinese doc- 
tors, who, however, supplement the more effi- 
cacious remedies they possess by others wliich 
have no remedial qualities at all. For example, 
among many herbal medicines, which undoubt- 
edly are more or less tonic, we find that the 
same qualities are ascribed to stalactite, fresh 
tops of stag-horns, dried red-spotted lizards, silk- 
worm moths, black and white lead, tortoise- 
shell, and dog's flesh. By the same stretch of 
the imagination the bones and teeth of dragons, 
oyster-shells, loadstone, talc, and gold and sil- 



234 Medicine. 

ver leaf are regarded as astringents ; while ver- 
digris, calcareous spar, catechu pearls, bear's 
gall, shavings of rhinoceros' horns, and turtle- 
shell, are used as purgatives. Elephant's skin, 
and, with a certain consistency, ivorj-shavings 
are considered to be antidotes to poison. It 
has been calculated by Doctor Henderson, that 
out of the whole Chinese pharmacopoeia, three 
hundred and fourteen remedies are taken from 
the vegetable kingdom, about fifty from the 
mineral kingdom, and seventy-eight from the 
animal kingdom. 

All these remedies, good, bad, and indiffer- 
ent, are sanctioned by the medical board at 
Peking, which has, in the exercise of its wis- 
dom, divided all diseases into eleven classes \ 
viz., — diseases of the large blood-vessels, and 
small-pox ; diseases of the small blood-vessels ; 
diseases of the skin ; diseases of the eye ; of 
the mouth ; of the teeth ; of the throat ; of 
women ; of the bones ; and fevers and cases 
arising from acupuncture. Fortunately for the 
people whose health is at the merc}^ of these 
ignorant professors of the art of healing, in- 
flammatory diseases, to which are attributable 
three-fifths of the mortality in England, are 



Doctors' Fees. 235 

almost unknown in China, where, however, 
small-pox, phthisis, dysentery, and diarrhoea, rage 
almost unchecked by medical help, and skin 
diseases lay a heavy burden on the population. 
Of late, the practice of vaccination has begun 
to make way among the people, having been 
first introduced to their notice by a pamphlet 
on the subject which was translated into Chi- 
nese b}^ Sir George Staunton. Previousl}'^ inoc- 
ulation by putting the virus up the nose was 
universally employed, as it still is, by all ex- 
cept those few who have been shown the bet- 
ter way. Cancer is b}^ no means uncommon, 
and for this disease human milk is largely used. 
At the present time the empress dowager is 
said to be suffering from this frightful malady, 
and it is stated that in her case, the remedy 
referred to has been employed with the most 
beneficial results. 

The scale of doctors' fees is low, being from 
about a dime in the case of poor people, to a 
dollar in the case of wealthy persons ; but it 
will probably be considered that even this 
lower sum is more than an equivalent for the 
good likely to be gained from their advice. 
As a rule, when a lady is the sufferer, the 



286 Medicine. 

doctor never sees his patient except in extreme 
cases, and is content to form his opinion of 
her ailment by feeling the pulse of her wrists, 
which are allowed to appear beneath the screen 
behind which she sits or reclines. One of the 
most curious and dangerous extra medicinal 
remedies used by the Chinese is acupuncture. 
This is generally resorted to in cases of chronic 
rheumatism or dyspepsia. For the first malady 
the needle, either hot or cold, is thrust boldly 
into the joint or joints affected, and though 
valueless as a curative, it is at least less dan- 
gerous than when applied for dyspepsia. In 
such cases it is thrust into the abdomen, re- 
gardless of the injury which is likely to be 
done to the intestines and organs. Among 
people of Western nations and constitutions, 
this reckless use of the needle would constantly 
produce serious if not fatal evils, but thanks 
to the phlegmatic temperament of Chinamen, 
it does not often bring about mortal results. 
Occasionally patients are admitted to the for- 
eign hospitals, suffering from injuries to intes- 
tines and liver inflicted by the needle, but 
these do not, as a rule, enter any more seri- 
ous category than that of troublesome cases. 



No Chinese Chemistry, 237 

Insanity is by no means uncommon in China, 
but it is less conspicuous than in Western lands, 
owing to the repressive treatment which the 
patients receive. On the first symptom of vio- 
lence, they are bound down and kept so until 
their strength fails them or death releases them 
from their bondage. When harmless, they are 
allowed to wander about, and in the northern 
provinces, where insanity seems to prevail more 
than in the south, the wretched creatures, 
clothed or unclothed, may be met with on the 
roads and in the streets. On one occasion, the 
present writer saw a maniac lying by the way- 
side, in the midst of winter, without a particle 
of clothing upon him. Lunatic asylums are un- 
known, and the malady is so little recognized 
by the mandarins that madmen are held respon- 
sible to the law for their acts prompted by mania. 
. The ignorance prevailing among Chinamen of 
chemistry and anatoni}^ make their post-mortem 
examinations valueless, as may be gathered from 
the following finding, lately reported in the 
Peking Grazette, in the instance of a suspected 
case of poisoning. " We find," wrote the cor- 
oners, "in the remains of Koh P'in-leen that 
there is no reddish exfoliation on the surface 



238 Medicine, 

of the skull; that the upper and lower bones 

of the mouth, the teeth, jaw-bones, hands, feet, 
fingers, toes, nails, and joints are all of a yellow- 
ish-white color; . . . through the remainder 
of the body the bones of all sizes are of a yel- 
lowish-white, showing no signs of the effects 
of poison ; and our verdict is that death in 
this case was caused by disease, and not by 
.poison." The one point, in which, at an early 
period, the Chinese were in advance of our- 
selves, was in their knowledge of the value of 
mercury. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



MUSIC. 



ig^lV/fUSIC, like some of 
^S^v .1 the other sciences, 
is said to have been 
invented by the Em- 
peror Fuh-he (B. c. 
2852-2737). He it 
was, we are told, 
who made the first 
She^ a sort of lute. 
At first this instru- 
ment had twenty- 
five strings, but, ac- 
cording to the legend, a damsel was one day 
playing on one such instrument before the Em- 
peror Hwang-te, who became so effected to mel- 
ancholy by the music, that he ordered that, 
from that time, the number of the strings should 
be reduced by one half. To Fuh-he belongs 




240 Music. 

also the credit of being the inventor of the 
KHn^ another form of lute, which stands in pop- 
ular estimation at the head of Chinese musi- 
cal instruments. The name which was originally 
given it of Lung K'in points to the fact, which 
we have abundant evidence to prove, that the 
aborigines of China were musicians before the ar- 
rival of the Chinese. The Lung were a powerful 
tribe occupying a portion of Southwestern China, 
and judging from the name, it is reasonable to 
suppose that the knowledge of the K'in was 
first brought to the Court of Fuh-he by men 
of that race. The K'in was known also among 
the ancients as "a reminder of distant affairs," 
which would seem to indicate a geographically 
remote origin for it. History further tells us 
that, during his reign, men of the great Pung 
(Fung) tribe, which at that time occupied a 
large tract of country south of the Yang-tsze 
keang, arrived at court and made music. 

In considering these early chapters of ancient 
Chinese history, it is necessary to bear in mind 
that we are dealing with the mixed records of 
the aborigines and of the Chinese. So far in 
the history of music we are plainly in the pre- 
Chinese stage, but with the reign of Hwang te 



The First Chinese Music. 241 

the Chinese element is introduced. The account 
of Hwang-te's musical efforts are very interest- 
ingi and bear out in a remarkable degree the 
supposition that he was one of the rulers of 
the race when they had their homes to the 
south of the Caspian Sea. We are told that 
he sent his minister Ling-lun from the west 
of Ta hea to a particular valley in the KwSn- 
lun mountains, where he was ordered to make 
choice of bamboos fitted for musical pipes. Ta 
hea we know to have been Bactria, and Hwang-te 
must therefore have been living to the west of 
that country, exactly where we should expect 
to find him. Ling-lun did as he was told, and 
cut twelve pipes of varying lengths, so ar- 
ranged as to emit the twelve demi-tones. These, 
it is said, he arrived at by listening to the 
singing of the Pungs, the voices of the men 
giving him, so runs the story, six demi-tones, 
and those of the women the remaining six. 
Here again it will be observed the help of the 
Pungs is called in, and it is worth mentioning 
that the descendants of these people and of 
the Lung and Kwei tribes who are still to be 
found in the southwestern povinces of the em- 
pire, retain the same passion for music and 
16 



242 Music. 

dancing which made them famous in the time 
of Fuh-he, and subsequently. 

Chwan Hii, the next Emperor but one' to 
Hwang-te, was born, we are told, at the Jo 
water in Sze-chuen, and on reaching the throne, 
used to recall with pleasure, the sound made 
by the wind as it whistled through the forests 
of mulberry trees which grew in his native 
district. That he might again listen to such 
music, he sent a Fei-lung to the Jo water to 
imitate the sounds of the eight winds. The 
Fei-lung (Flying Dragon) tribe was one of the 
most important in primitive China. We read 
of them in the first chapter of the Yih king, 
and repeatedly in the earlier historical works. 
They were a branch of the great Lung people, 
who were divided into the Fei-lung, the Hwo- 
lung (Fire Dragons), the Ho-lung (River Dra- 
gons), etc. Tlie existence of these prefixes has 
served to conceal the fact that the compound 
expressions represented tribal names, and has 
encouraged those who looked on all mentions 
of the Lung as so many myths in their in- 
credulity. But in point of fact, they serve as 
confirmations of the opposite sense. In his 
recent work of travels iri Cambodia, Monsieur 



Drums and Stringed Instruments, 243 

De-la-porte says that he encountered in his 
journeys several sections of the Kwei tribe, 
which were distinguished as Fei-kwei (Flying 
kwei), Hwo-kwei, (Fire kwei), Ho-kwei (River 
kwei), and so on. The Fei-lung who was 
sent by Chwan Hii on the difficult mission of 
reproducing the sounds of the wind, is said to 
have been successful. By means of what in- 
strument he preserved the notes we are not 
told, but as the invention of the Pan pipes 
is put down to this period, it is possible that 
they may have been tlie instrument chosen by 
the Fei-lung. 

Stringed and reed instruments, such as are 
used by the aboriginal tribes of China at the 
present day, were the first known. Next in 
order, probably, came drums, which seem, in 
the first instance, to have been used to excite 
warriors in the battle-field to deeds of prowess. 
Of these there are eight kinds, distinguished 
by names indicating their size and use. Stone 
seems also to liave preceded metal as a musi- 
cal substance. In the earliest classics we have 
mention of musical stones, which were sixteen 
in number, and were hung from a frame by 
cords. They were cut somewhat in the shape 



244 



Music, 



of a carpenter's square, one side being twice 
the length of the other. Tlie stones phiyed 
upon by the emperors are said to have been 
of jade, the use of which, for this purpose, 
was forbidden to subjects. 

In most parts of the world the trumpet has 




MUSICAL WOMEN. 



held the first place among metal instruments, 
but in China tlie bell had the priority, and 
at the present day it still holds its own against 



Trumpets and Bells. 245 

the louder-tonguecl horn, which is used only as 
a military call, and in processions. Bells were 
originally made of six parts of copper to one 
of tin. Tongues were never used, but sound 
was produced by striking the rim with a stick, 
or, in after-times, the knobs with which the 
bell was studded, and which were so arranged 
as to give out the different musical notes when 
struck. The form of the most ancient bells 
was square, but in subsequent ages they as- 
sumed the round shape, and at the present 
day are universally so made. They are moulded 
in every size, from the little Fung ling^ or 
" Wind-bell," which swings on the eaves of 
pagodas, to the huge bells which hang in some 
of the most notable temples. One of the largest 
of these is in a temple at Peking, and forms 
a wonderful example of the mechanical inge- 
nuity of the Chinese. It is about fifteen feet 
in diameter, twenty feet in height, and weighs 
about fifty-three tons. The lower rim is about 
a foot thick, and the whole bell is covered 
inside and out with the Chinese text of a long 
Buddhist liturgical work. This bell is one of 
a set of five which were cast by order of the 
Emperor Yung-loh (a. d. 1403-1425). One of 



246 Music, 

its companions hangs in the Drum-Tower at 
Peking, and, "in the stillness of the midnight 
hour, its deep mellow tone is heard at four 
miles distance throughout Peking, as it strikes 
the watch." In the "Great Bell Tower" at 
Canton there is a huge bell, which, however, 
is never voluntarily struck, as it is believed, 
that if it be sounded, some misfortune will 
overtake the city. The capture of the town by 
the English and French, in 1857, is said, by 
the natives, to have been the result of a shot 
from one of the guns of the British ship 
Encounter which struck and sounded the bell 
during the bombardment. 

As musical instruments bells are principally 
used at religious services and in processions. 
In ancient times they seem to have been gen- 
erally sounded with drums. In the She king 
we have constant mention of bells and drums 
being used on the occasions of bringing home 
brides, or in royal processions. Sometimes we 
hear of them concerted with otlier instruments, 
as when speaking of the expedition of King 
Yew to the Hwai the poet says: 

Kin kin peal the bells, peal on, 
And the lutes in the concert we hear. 



Gongs and Cymbals. 247 

Deep breathes the organ tone; 

Soundnig stones join their notes, rich and clear. 
The while through the vessel there ring 
The Ya and the Nan which tliey sing, 

And the dancers with flutes now appear. 

Bells were sounded also at the opening and 
close of sacrificial rites, and were even at- 
tached to the knives used. It is custo- 
mary also to fasten them to the harness of 
horses driven by potentates, and to their car- 
riages and banners. 

A more popular instrument than the bell is the 
gong, of which there are three kinds in common 
use, the Temple Gong, wliich, as its name implies, 
is used in temples; the Soochow Gong, which is 
shaped " like a boiler ; " and the Watch Gong, 
which is a small kind used to strike the watches. 
At religious services, on occasions of ceremony, 
and at theatrical performances, the gong bears 
a conspicuous part ; but though considered 
an element of harmony by men, its sound strikes 
terror into evil spirits, and it is consequent- 
ly used with pealing effect on all occasions 
when evil influences are to be exorcised. 
When a vessel puts to sea, when it returns 
to harbor, when a house is supposed to be 



248 Music. 

haunted, or when any unnatural phenomena 
occur, such as an eclipse, the gongs are vig- 
orously sounded to dispel the malign influ- 
ences which are believed to be present. On 
the outbreak of a fire they are used as sig- 
nals, first of all to indicate what quarter of 
the town is threatened ; next, by the rapidity 
of the beats, to make known the progress and 
fierceness of the fire, and again, b}^ tolling, to 
show that the danger is over. Cymbals and 
horns are other metal instruments used by the 
Chinese. 

Flutes, fifes, clarionets, and conch shells, are, 
with the reed organ, the commonest Avind- 
instruraents. This last is made with a gourd, 
into the upper surface of which nineteen reed 
tubes are inserted. These reeds have holes 
near the base to prevent their emitting sounds, 
until stopped by the performer. The mouth- 
piece, which is not unlike the spout of a ket- 
tle, is inserted in the side of the gourd, and 
the instrument is played either by drawing in 
the breath or by blowing. 

The favorite instruments of the Chinese, 
however, are stringed. The She and the K'in, 
of wliich mention has already been made, 



Fiddles and G-uitars. 249 

are the chief among these. '^ The K'in," saj^s 
Professor Williams, "is very ancient, and de- 
rives its name from the word K'in, to pro- 
hibit, 'because it restrains and checks evil pas- 
sions, and corrects the human heart.' It is a 
board about four feet in length and eighteen 
inches wide, convex above and flat beneath, 
where are two holes opening into hollows. 
There are seven strings of silk, which pass over 
a bridge near the wide end, through the board, 
and are tightened by nuts beneath : they are 
secured on two pegs at the smaller end. The 
sounding board is divided b}^ thirteen studs, 
so placed that the length of the strings is 
divided, first into two equal parts, then into 
three, etc., up to eight, with the omission of 
the seventh. The seven strings enclose the 
compass of the ninth or two fifths, the middle 
one being treated like A upon the violin — 
viz., as a middle string, and each of the outer 
ones is tuned a fifth from it. This interval is 
treated like our octave in the violin, for the 
compass of the K'in is made up of fifths. 
Each of the outer strings is tuned a fourth 
from the alternate string within the system, so 
that there is a major tone, an interval tone 



250 Music. 

less than a minor third, and a major tone in 
the fifth. The Chinese leave the interval en- 
tire, and skip the half tone, while we divide 
it into two unequal parts. It will, therefore, 
readily appear, that the mood or character of 
the music of the K'in must be very different 
from that of western instruments, so that none 
of them can exactly do justice to the Chinese 
airs. One of the peculiarities of performing on 
the lute, is sliding the left-hand fingers along 
the string, and the trilling and other evolutions 
they are made to execute." 

Besides the She and the KHn there are 
several kinds of fiddles and guitars, among the 
best-known of which are the P'i-P'a, a four- 
stringed guitar which is played with the fin- 
gers, the Yueh KHn^ or " Moon K'in,'' named 
from the moon-like shape of the sound-board, 
which has four strings standing in pairs, tuned 
as fifths to each other, and the Su-chun, or 
"Standard Lute," with twelve strings, yielding 
exactly the notes of the twelve Luh or tubes 
invented by Ling-lun. 

Music has at all times held an important 
part in the political system of the Chinese. 
Its influence for good or evil on the people is 



Music and Morals. 253 

regarded as potent, and according to a cele- 
brated saying of Confucius, it gives the finish 
to the character which has first been estab- 
lished by the rules of propriet}*. So marked 
has the impression produced by it been held 
to be, that Confucius, when on his way to 
Ts'e, recognized, in the gait and manner of 
a boy whom he met carrying a picture, the in- 
fluence of the Shaou music, and hurried on to 
the capital of the state that he might enjoy 
its excellencies to perfection. On another occa- 
sion, we are told that he perceived with de- 
light, in the sound of stringed instruments and 
the singing at Woo-shing, the effect produced 
on a people turbulent by nature, by the rule 
of his disciple, Tszeyew. In this, as in other 
matters, Confucius merely reproduced the opinions 
of those who had gone before him, and from 
the time that Ling-lun made the first pan- 
pipe, the influence of music on morals and 
politics has been an established creed amongst 
the Chinese. The purity of the prevailing music 
became the test of the virtues of the sovereign, 
and one of the gravest charges brought against 
the dissolute Chow Sin, the last emperor of 
the Yin Dynasty (b. c. 1154-1122) was that, 



254 Music. 

to gratify his consort, the notoriously vicious 
T'an-ke, lie substituted licentious airs for the 
chaste music of his ancestors. Time has done 
little to change the opinions of the Chinese 
on this subject, and at the present day a care- 
ful watch is kept over the efforts of composers 
by the Imperial Board of music, whose duty 
is to keep alive the music of the ancients, and 
to suppress all compositions which are not in 
harmony with it. 



CHAPTER IX. 



AECHITECTURE. 




TT is a curious circumstance 
that in China, a land where 
there exists such a profound 
veneration for everything 
old, there should not be 
found either any ancient 
buildings or old ruins. While 
every other nation possessing 
a history has its monuments 
and remains, China has noth- 
ing that illustrates a past 
age, except possibly a few 
pagodas scattered over the 
land. No emperor has sought 
to hand down his name to 
generations yet to come by 
the erection of any build- 
ing, useful or ornamental. It 
255 



256 Architecture. 

would seem as though their original nomadic 
origin haunted them still, and that the recol- 
lection of old tent-homes which were pitched 
to-day and struck to-morrow, still denominates 
tlieir ideas of what palaces and houses should be. 

That there is an abundant supply of the 
most durable materials for building in the land 
is certain, and that for many centuries the 
Chinese have been acquainted with the art of 
brick-making is well-known, but they have reared 
no building possessing enduring stability. Neither 
do they possess any respect for ancient edifices, 
even when they have the odor of sancity at- 
taching to them. If any house in the empire 
ought to have been preserved, it should have 
been that of Confucius, and yet we are told 
that in the reign of Woo-ti ( B. c. 140-86 ), a 
prince of Loo pulled it down to build a larger 
one in its place. 

Not only does the ephemeral nature of the 
tent appear iu the slender construction of Chi- 
nese houses, but even in shape they assume a 
tent-like form. The slope of the roof, and its 
up-turned corners, coupled with the absence of 
upper stories, all remind one irresistibly of a 
tent. The main supports, also, of the roof are 



Walls and Screens, 257 

the wooden pillars, the walls serving only to 
fill up the intervening spaces, and form no ad- 
dition to the stability of the building. As 
etiquette provides that, in houses of the better 
class, a high wall should surround the building, 
and that no window should look outward, streets 
in the fashionable parts of cities have a very 




A CHINESE GATEWAY. 



dreary aspect. The only breaks in the long 

line of dismal wall, are the front-doors, which, 

however, are generally closed, or if by 'dny 

chance they should be left open, movable screens 

bar the sight of all beyond the doors of the 

munshang's, or doorkeeper's rooms. If, however, 

we pass round one such screen, we find our- 
17 



258 Architecture. 

selves in a courtyard, which ma}^ possibly be 
laid out as a garden, but more frequently is 
flagged with paving-stones. On either side are 
rooms usually occupied by servants, while in 
front is a building to which we have to ascend 
by two or three steps, and through whicli a 
passage runs, having a room or rooms on either 
side. At the other end of the passage a de- 
scent of two or three steps lands us in another 
courtyard, in the rooms surrounding which the 
family live, and behind this again are the 
women's apartments, which not unfrequently 
look into a garden at the back. A passage, 
either running along the inside of the court- 
yards or beyond them, enables servants and 
tradespeople to pass to any part of the house 
without trespassing on the central way, which 
is reserved for their betters. As has been al- 
ready said, wooden pillars support the roofs of 
the buildings, which are a reminiscence of the 
earlier tent, and the intervals between these 
are filled up with brick work, but often so 
irregularly, as to point plainly to their being 
no integral part of the construction. The win- 
dow-frames are wooden, over which is pasted 
either paper or calico, though sometimes pieces 




A MANDARIN ■ J. 



Ceilings and Roofs. 261 

of talc are substituted, the better to transmit 
the light. The doors are almost invariably fold- 
ing doors, and turn in wooden sockets. The 
floors of the rooms are generally either stone 
or cement, and when laid down with wood, are 
so uneven and creaky, as considerably to miti- 
gate its advantages. Ceilings are not often 
used, the roof being the only covering to the 
I'ooms. As a rule, the roof is the most orna- 
mental part of the building. The woodwork 
which supports it is intricate and handsome, 
the shape is picturesque, and the glazed tiles 
which cover it make it present a bright aspect. 
A ridge-and-furrow-like appearance is given to 
it by putting, at regular intervals, on the under 
layer of flat tiles, lines of semi-circular tiles 
from the summit to the eaves. Yellow is the 
color commonly used, both for temples and those 
houses which, by the sumptuar}^ laws in force, 
are entitled to have glazed tiles. At the "altar 
of heaven," at Peking, a magnificent effect is 
produced by the use of deep-blue glazed por- 
celain tiles, which in hue and brightness make 
no bad imitation of the sky above. 

Carpets are seldom used, more especially in 
Southern China, where also stoves for warming- 



262 Architecture. 

purposes are unknown. In the north, where, in 
the winter, the cold is very great, portable charcoal 
stoves are employed, in addition to the heated 
kangs*, and small chafing dishes are carried 
ubout from room to room. The main depen- 
dence of the Chinese for personal warmth is 
jn clothes. As the winter approaches garment 
is added to garment, and furs to quilted vest- 
ments, until the wearer assumes an unwieldy 
and exaggerated shape. Well-to-do Chinamen 
seldom take strong exercise, and they are there- 
fore able to bear a weight of clothes which to 
a European would be unendurable. 

Of the personal comfort obtainable in a house 
Chinamen are strangely ignorant. Their furniture 
is of the hardest and most uncompromising 
nature. Chairs, made of a hard, black wood, 
and of an angular shape, and equally unyield- 
ing divans, covered possibly with hard, red 
cushions, are the only seats known to them. 
Their beds are scarcely more comfortable, and 
their pillows are oblong cubes of bamboo, or 
other hard material. For the maintenance of 
the existing fashions of female head-dressing this 
kind of pillow is essential to women at least. 

* A Kang is a raised brick bed place. See pac;e 303 



Bandoline and Fashion. 263 

as their hair, which is dressed only at in- 
tervals of days, and being kept in its gro- 
tesque shapes by the abundant use of bandoline, 
would be crushed and disfigured if lain upon 
for a moment. Women, therefore, who make 
any pretension of following the fashion, are 
obliged to sleep at night on their backs, rest- 
ing the nape of the neck on the pillow, thus 
keeping the head and hair free from contact 
with anything. 

The use of paint in ornamenting the inside 
of the roofs and other parts of the house is 
subject to sumptuary laws, which regulate not 
only what shall be painted, but also what 
colors shall be used. No let or hindrance, 
however, is placed in the way of internal 
ornament, and the wood carvings, representing 
flowers and fruits, which not unfrequently adorn 
the doorways and walls of the houses of the 
rich, are often extremely handsome, combining 
beauty of design with wonderful skill in ex- 
ecution. The shapes of their cabinets and 
ornamental pieces of furniture are very taste- 
ful, and the rare beauty of their bronzes and 
articles of porcelain-ware, with which they de- 
light to fill their rooms, are too well known 



264 Architecture, 

to need mention here. On a hot day, tLe large 
reception-hall in a wealthy Chinamen's house, 
shaded from every ray of sun by the wide, 
overhanging roof, lofty and spacious, is a wel- 
come retreat, while the absence of carpets and 
"stuff" from the furniture, gives it a refresh- 
ingly cool aspect. 

Like the country roads, the streets in towns 
differ widely in construction in the northern 
and southern portions of the empire. In the 
south, they are narrow and paved, in the north 
they are wide and unpaved. Both constructions 
are suited to the local wants of the people. 
The absence of wheel-traffic in the southern 
provinces makes wide streets unnecessary, while, 
by contracting their width, the sun's rays have 
less chance of beating down on the heads of 
passers-by, and are altogether excluded the 
more easily by the use of awnings stretched 
across from roof to roof. It is true that this 
is done at the expense of fresh air, but even 
to do this is a gain. Shops are all open in 
front, the counters forming the onl}^ barriers 
between the street and their contents. In the 
more populous parts of the empire the streets 
of large cities present a very animated appear- 



Street Scenes. 



265 



ance. Crowds of pedestrians, sedan-chairs carry- 
ing numbers of the wealthy and official classes, 
horsemen, and coolies carrying their loads bal- 
anced at each end of bamboos slung across 
their shoulders, jostle one another in the nar- 
row thoroughfares, in such close and constant 




A CHIMiSE SHOP. 



proximity, that it is due only to the untiring 
patience and good humor of the crowd that any 
movement is possible. 



266 Architecture, 

This inconvenience is avoided in the wide 
streets of the cities in the north, where the 
accommodation of wheel- traffic make more room 
necessary ; but in the present degenerate con- 
dition of municipal regulations the wide streets 
are not an unmixed good. Though professing 
to be macadamized, they are destitute of metal,* 
with the natural consequences that in wet 
weather they are sloughs, and in dry seasons 
they are covered inches deep in dust. Of the 
large cities of the north and south, Peking 
and Canton may be taken as typical examples, 
and certainly, with the exception of the palace, 
the walls, and certain imperial temples, the 
streets of Peking compare very unfavorably 
with those of Canton. The shops have a meaner 
and less prosperous look, and there is a general 
air of dirt and decay about the city. From 
the fact that the better class of houses are 
enclosed within high blank walls, the existence 
of the palaces belonging to the imperial princes, 
instead of brightening the aspect of the town, 
serves only to add to its dreariness. These 
palaces, or "foos," of which there are fifty at 
Peking, are given in perpetuity to certain 

* Broken stones used for making roads are known in England as "met^l." 



Foos and their Co7npartments. 267 

princes of the blood for signal services, and 
also to sons of the emperor for their lives and 
for two later generations, the great grandson 
of the original recipient being in each case 
obliged to resign the gift again to the sover- 
eign. The general plan of one of these "foos" 
is thus described by Doctor Williamson : " A 
foo has in front of it two large stone lions, 
with a house for musicians and for gate-keep- 
ers. Through a lofty gateway, on which are 
hung tablets inscribed with the prince's titles, 
the visitor enters a large, square court, with a 
paved terrace in the centre, which fronts the 
principal hall. Here, on days of ceremony, the 
slaves and dependants may be ranged in rev- 
erential position before the prince, who sits as 
master of the household, in tlie hall. Behind 
the principal hall are two others, both fac- 
ing, like it, the south. These buildings all 
have five or seven compartments divided by 
pillars which support the roof, and the tliree 
or five in the centre are left open to form 
one large hall, while the sides are petitioned 
off to make rooms. Beyond the gable there 
is usually an extension called the wi-fang, lit- 
erally, the ear house, from its resemblance in 



268 Architecture, 

position to that organ. On each side of the 
large courts fronting the halls is a side-house, 
'siang fang,' of one or two stories. The gar- 
den of a foo is on the west side, and is 
usually arranged as an ornamental park, with 
a lake, wooded mounds, fantastic arbors, small 
Buddhist temples, covered passages, and a large, 
open hall for drinking tea and entertaining 
guests, which is called Hwa-ting. Garden and 
house are kept private, and effectually guarded 
from the intrusion of strangers by a high wall, 
and at the doors a numerous staff of messen- 
gers. The stables are usuall}^ on the east side, 
and contain stout Mongol ponies, large Hi 
horses, and a goodly supply of sleek, well-kept 
mules, such as North China furnishes in abun- 
dance. A prince or princess has a retinue of 
about twenty, mounted on ponies or mules." 

As these Foos are built on an officially pre- 
scribed plan, there is very little variet}^ among 
them, and the same sumptuary laws wliich 
regulate their construction, take cognizance also 
of the country mansions of the great. These 
were originally occupied onl)- by "Kung'' or 
Dukes, and were built on much the same 
model as the Foo, except that their grounds 




IN A CHINESE GARDEN. 



Summer-Houses and Walls. 271 

were more extensive, and the detached pavil- 
ions and summer-houses more numerous. The 
gardens surrounding these and other large 
country houses are wonderfully "landscaped." 
Every inequality of nature, whether hill or 
valley, rock or dale, is represented in them, 
while artificial water, caverns, and grotesque 
bridges, complete the microcosm they are intended 
to represent. 

Every Chinese city is surrounded by a wall, 
which in the present state of the military 
knowledge of the people, is often sufficient to 
turn back the tide of war. These walls vary 
very much in height and state of repair with the 
circumstances of each city. Those surrounding 
Peking are probably the finest and best kept 
in the empire. In height they are about forty 
feet, and the same in width. The top, which 
is defended by massive battlements, is well 
paved, and is kept in excellent order. Over 
each gate, and there are twelve of them, is 
built a fortified tower between eighty and 
ninety feet high, and each is further defended 
on the outside by a large semi-circular enceinte, 
with walls of the same dimensions as those of 
the main structure. Seen from the wall, all 



272 



Architecture. 



Chinese cities present quite an uninteresting 
appearance. The dwelling-houses, being almost 
identical, both in height and construction, the 
scene is one of curious monotony, which is 




A WAF-TOWER. 



broken only by the uplifted roofs of temples 
and palaces. 

In every city the temples form a noticeable 
feature, and prominent among them are invari- 
ably those dedicated to Confucius. The law 
provides that at least one of these should be 
built in every city and market-town through- 




A CITY GATE 



Privileges of Grates. 275 

out the empire, and it is ordained with equal 
rigiditj that it should consist of three court- 
yards, built one behind the other, and all fac- 
ing south. The entrances should be on the 
eastern and western faces of the outer court- 
yard, and only when a native of the district 
has won the supreme honor at the competitive 
examinations, viz., the title of Chwang-yuen, is 
the southern wall, which is always painted red, 
pierced for a gateway. Even when this is 
done, the right of passing through it is re- 
served only for emperors and Chwang-yuens, 
who alone also have tlie right of crossing the 
bridge that spans the semi-circular pond, which 
occupies part of the lower end of the conrt- 
yard. In the .right-hand corner, at the upper 
end, is the house where the animals for sac- 
rifice are kept, and on the opposite side is 
the pavilion where the chief worshipper rests 
when first entering tlie temple, and where he 
dons his official clothes. Across the northern 
end of the passage runs a large hall, in the mid- 
dle of which is the " Gate of Great Perfec- 
tion," and through which those only who are 
privileged to enter the temple by the southern 
wall, and to cross the bridge, are allowed to 



276 Architecture. 

pass into the next or principal court. On each 
side of this are covered passages, containing 
the tablets of illustrious Confucianists, famous 
for their piety and learniug. Cypresses grow 
in the intervening space, and here the wor- 
shippers prostrate themselves before the tablet, 
or, in some cases, the image of the Sage which 
rests on an altar in the " Hall of Great Per- 
fection," that faces southward. On either side 
of the high altar are arranged the tablets and 
altars of the four principal disciples of Confu- 
cius, and of the twelve "Wise Men." In the 
hindermost court, stands the " Ancestral Hall 
of Exalted Sages," which contains the tablets 
of the five ancestors of Confucius, of his half- 
brotlier, of the fathers of the principal dis- 
ciples, and of other worthies. The largest Con- 
fucian temple at Peking is a very handsome 
structure. The roof, which is painted an azure 
blue, is elaborately decorated, and rows of 
cedar-trees, which are said to be upwards of 
five hundred years old, adorn the courtyards. 
Its most interesting contents are a set of ten 
stone drums, on each of which is inscribed a 
stanza of poetry. It is currently believed that 
these drums were first shaped in the days of 



Buddhist and Confucian Temples. 277 

Yaou aiui Shun (B. c. 2356-2205), but, unfortu- 
nately for this theory, the forms of the cliaracters 
point to their having been cut at a later pe- 
riod, probably the seventh or eighth century B. c. 

The Buddhist temples differ little in general 
construction from the Confucian temples. Like 
them, they are built in a succession of court- 
yards, minutiae of which are different, and in 
the all-important point of the objects of worship 
they are, of course, dissimilar. In place of the 
tablets of Confucius and his four disciples, 
stand images of Buddha, Past, Present, and 
Future, and the shrines of the twelve Wise 
Men are exchanged for a number of idols 
representing the numerous incarnations of Bud- 
dha. In a few of the larger temples stand 
Dagobas, containing relics of the founder of 
the religion. " On each side," says Archdeacon 
Gray, "of the large courtyards, in vrhich the 
principal halls of the temple are erected, are 
rows of cells for the monks, a visitors' hall, 
a refectory, and sometimes a printing-office, 
where the liturgical services used by the priests, 
new works on the tenets of Buddha, and tracts 
for general distribution, are printed." 

Among the most ancient buildings in China 



278 Architecture, 

are the Buddhist pagoday, which were first 
built on the introduction of Buddhism from 
India. Originally they were designed as de- 
positories of relics of Buddha, but in later 
ages many have been erected to form the 
tombs of celebrated Buddhist priests, or as 
memorials of saintly parsonages, or again, to 
secure beneficial geomantic influences for the 
surrounding districts. Pagodas are generally 
built of bricks, and are made to consist of 
an uneven number of stories; five, seven, and 
nine being the most common numbers. In 
most cases the walls are double, and between 
the inner and outer masonry winds the stair- 
case leading to the summit, fiom which, by 
means of doorways, access is obtained to the 
chambers on each flat. The outer wall, which 
invariably tapers, is usually octagonal, and its 
surface is broken by the projecting roofs of 
tiles which surmount the different stories. These 
roofs, turned up at the corners, covered with 
green glazed tiles, and hung about with bells, 
form the most attractive features of the build- 
ing. In some pagodas containing relics of 
Buddha, as is the case with one at How- 
chow, no stories divide the interior of the 



The Most Magnificent Pagoda. 279 

pagoda, but in the centre of tlie ground floor 
rises a marble pagoda-shaped column, beneath 
which rests the relic, upon the sides of wliicli 
are carved ten thousand small images of Buddha. 
The most celebrated and magnificent pagoda 
ever built in China was the well-known por- 
celain tower at Nanking, which was erected 
by the Emperor Yung-loh (1403-1425), to com- 
memorate the virtues of his mother. The outer 
walls were built of bricks of the finest white 
porcelain, and the inner walls of ordinary 
bricks encased in richly-enameled yellow and 
red tiles. In shape it was an octagon. It 
consisted of nine stories, and stood about two 
hundred and seventy feet in height. The pin- 
nacle was surmounted by a large gilt ball 
fixed to the top of an iron rod, which was 
encircled by nine iron rings, and on the roof 
were fastened five large pearls for the purpose 
of protecting the city from as many evils. 
Nineteen years and a million dollars were spent 
in building this unique structure, which, after 
standing for about four hundred and fift}^ years, 
was so completely destroyed by the Tai-ping 
rebels in 1856, that one brick was not left 
standing on another. 



CHAPTER X, 



DRAWING. 



^THHE art of drawing is 
held in great esteem 
in China, and the works 
of the most renowned 
artists are eagerly 
sought after, and are 
as carefully treasured 
as those of Raffaelle 
or Rubens are among 
ourselves. Drawing 
claims for itself a great 
antiquit}^ and as is the 
case with some other 
arts, it seems to have 
had its origin among 
the aborigines. It is curious also to observe that 
Honan, the cradle of much that has since in- 
creased the sum of Chinese civilization, is cred- 

280 




Artistic Growth, 288 

ited with having been the home of drawing as 
well as of the written character. Fiili-he, who 
invented the celebrated eight diagrams, made 
drawings and plans, we are told, in imitation 
of the records he found at the Jung river in 
Honan, and Hwang-te is said to have obtained 
a likeness of Ts'ang Hieh, the inventor of writ- 
ing, from the Lo river. These and other tradi- 
tions appear to prove that the inscriptions 
drawn on banks of the rivers by the abori- 
gines of that part of China, served not only 
as aids for the formation of new characters by 
the Chinese, but also as patterns for designs. 

From that beginning, the art of drawing 
grew, and though it cannot be said that the 
Chinese are an artistic people, it is equally 
untrue to deny that they are possessed of great 
skill in producing wonderful effects with a 
few strokes of the pencil. They have never 
understood perspective, but some of their land- 
scapes are admirable for their picturesqueness 
and for their life-like representations of nature. 
Their studies of trees, boughs and flowers are 
exceedingly accurate and tasteful, and their use 
of colors is highly effective, but, after all, there 
is a sameness in their drawings which suggests 



284 Drawing, 

that the art is mechanical, and a study of the 
works on drawing fully coiifirms the suspicion. 
In these we find detailed directions for repre- 
senting every kind of scenery and under all 
circumstances. In all such works mountains 
and streams are described as the highest objects 
for the painter's skilJ, and the student is told 
how to depict their beauties under ever}^ varj^- 
ing circumstance of season and weather. The 
ideal mountain should have a cloud encircling 
its " waist," which should hide from view a 
part of the stream which should pour down 
its sides, over rocks, in waterfalls. A temple, 
or house, shaded and half-concealed by a grove, 
should be nestled in its embrace, and a high 
bridge should span the neighboring torrent, over 
which a winding road, bordered by trees, 
should lead around the mountain. At intervals 
travellers should be seen mounting to the sum- 
mit. Three sides of a rock, if possible, should 
be shown, and water should appear as though 
ruffled by wind. A ford is a fitting adjunct 
to a precipitous bank, and smoke and trees 
add to the picturesqueness of a stretch of water. 
A large sheet of water should always be dotted 
with sails. A solitarj^ cit}^ in the distance, and 




A CHINESE ARTIST AT WORK. 285 



Rules of Art. 287 

a market town at the foot of the mountain, 
may be introduced with advantage. 

Houses should always form part of forest 
scenery, and an old tree with broken and 
twisted roots is an appropriate finish to a 
rocky cliff. The boughs of trees having leaves 
should be supple, but if bare, should be stiff. 
Pine bark should be drawn as fishes' scales 
and cedar bark is always, it should be remem- 
bered, entwining. The branches on the left 
side of a tree should be longer than those on 
the right. Rocks should be heavy above and 
slight beneath. There should never be too 
much either of smoke or cloud, nor should woods 
have too many trees. On a snowy day no 
cloud or smoke should be seen, and when rain 
is falling distant mountains should be invisi- 
ble. Such are some of the directions given for 
landscape drawing, and a glance at Chinese 
pictures of scenery is enough to show how 
closely the rules of the text-books are followed. 

Writers on art advise artists, before begin- 
ning to paint a flower, to examine it carefully 
from above, so as to become thoroughly ac- 
quainted with its every aspect; and to watch 
the shadow cast in bright moonlight by a 



288 Drawing. 

bamboo-tree on a white wall. The different 
aspects of the clouds in the four seasons should 
be carefully noted. In spring, clouds appear 
in harmonious concord; in summer, the}" con- 
gregate in profusion ; in autumn, the}" are in- 
termittent and light, and in winter, they are 
dark and cold. 

With the same minuteness every branch of 
the art is legislated for, and young artists de- 
siring to make themselves proficient in any di- 
rection, will find full instructions in the manuals 
published for their guidance. Admirable, how- 
ever, as are some of the effects produced, the 
result of drawing by rule is to produce a con- 
siderable amount of purely mechanical skill, and 
to reduce the exercise of the imagination to a 
minimum. The birds and flowers, mountains 
and streams, which seem to have been struck 
off in a few lines as the spirit of the artist 
moved him, are really the products of patient 
and repeated imitation, and the probability is, 
that the artist whose birds or flowers we all 
so much admire, would be quite unable to draw 
a dog or a house, if suddenly called upon to 
do so. The books enforce the doctrine that 
there is no difference between learniiior to write 



Striking Effects, 289 

and learning to draw. It is possible, by con- 
stant application, to learn to write characters 
correctly and elegantly, and the same is the 
case with pictures. This is not art of a high 
order, but it produces striking and well arranged 
effects. So skilful was a certain artist of the 
third century in representing insects, that it is 
said that ha^ving carelessly added the form of 
a fly to a picture he had painted for his 
sovereign, the emperor, on receiving the paint- 
ing, raised his hand to brush the insect away. 
The rules laid down for landscape drawing 
cannot, of course, apply to portrait painting, in 
which the artist has to follow a fresh model 
in every picture ; and for this reason, Chinese 
portraits are not generally successful. Occasion- 
ally, artists have arisen who have deservedly 
won renown in this branch of the art. One 
of the earliest of these was Maou Yen-chow, 
who, in the words of Mr. Mayers, "having 
been commissioned by Yuen-te, of the Han 
Dynasty (48-32 B. c), to paint the portraits of 
the beauties of his harem, is said to have fal- 
sified the lineaments of the lovely Chaou Keun 
on being denied a bribe, and subsequently, 

on the lady's real beauty being discovered by 
19 



290 Drawing, 

the emperor, to have fled with her true por- 
trait to the Khan of the Hiung-nu. The Khan, 
fired by the hope of obtaining possession of 
so peerless a beauty, inVaded China in irre- 
sistible force, and only consented to retire be- 
yond the Wall when the lady was surrendered 
to him. She accompanied her savage captor, 
bathed in tears, until the banks of the Amur 
were reached, when, rather than go beyond the 
boundry, she plunged into the waters of the 
stream. Her corpse was interred on the banks 
of the river, and it is related, that the tumulus 
raised above her grave remained covered with 
undying verdure." 



CHAPTER XL 



TRAVELLING. 



jrpEAVELLING in China is 
hm slow and leisurely. Time 
is of little or no object to 
the fortunate inhabitants 
of that country, who are 
content to be carried for 
long distances by cart, 
boat, sedan-cliair, or on 
horseback, without the 
least troubling themselves 
about the pace at which they journey. The 
prevailing modes of conveyance vary in accord- 
ance with the nature of the country. In the 
north, where the country is level and open, the 
existence of broad roads enables the inhabitants 
to use carts for the conveyance of passengers 
and goods. These carts are rude in construction 

291 




292 Travelling. 

and extremely uncomfortable. Those used as 
carriages consist of the bed of the cart, with a 
tilted cover and two wheels. They are entirely 
destitute of spruigs, and the passenger sits cross- 
legged on the bed of the cart, exactly above 



A CHINESE; JUNK. 



the axle, without any support for his back. Even 
on good roads such conveyances would be un- 
comfortable ; but in China, where the roads 
are rarely, if ever, mended, and are either stone 



The Q-reat Art in Travelling, 293 

causeways or unmade tracks, they are to all 
those who are not accustomed to them, iustru- 
meiits of torture. The great art in travelling 
in them is to sit bolt upright, to allow the body 
to sway to and fro with the motion of the 
cart, and to avoid touching the sides. In Pe- 
king, and other large cities, the private carriages 
of rich men sometimes have the wheels placed 
behind the cart, so that the cart itself is swung 
as it were, between the animal drawing it and 
the axle. In this way, the severe jolts, which 
harass the passenger seated immediately above 
the axle, are avoided. Carts for the carriage 
of goods generally have only two wheels, though 
there are also wagons with four. Mules are 
generally driven in private carriages and in the 
best hack carts, but other carts are drawn b}' 
ponies, dqnkeys, or oxen, as the convenience 
of the owner dictates. 

For riding purposes, also, mules are preferred 
to ponies. They are considered to be more 
ihanageable, and when taught, as they generally 
are, to amble, their pace is easy and expeditious. 
History tells us that horses are not indigenous 
to China, and this statement is borne out by 
the fact that the hieroglyphic now used for a 



294 Travelling. 

horse was originally drawn to represent a don- 
key, the ears being long — out of all proportion 
to those of a horse. Messengers and bearers 
of official despatches generally ride, but, as a 
rule, travellers prefer going long journeys either 
by cart or by boat. In the province of Shan- 
tung, and in other mountainous districts in 
Northern China, a kind of horse palanquin is 
used by^ travellers. Either two ponies or two 
mules are harnessed in the poles, one in front 
and one behind, and they thus carrj^ the palan- 
quin between them. 

The most usual way of travelling throughout 
the empire is by boat. In every direction the 
natural "water highways" dissect the country, 
and in parts where these fall short of the 
wants of the people, tliey are supplemented by 
canals. The boats are admirably adapted to 
the people and the circumstances. They are 
built rather for comfort than for speed, and 
their clean and comfortable cabins and easy 
motion form a most desirable contrast to the 
jolting of carts, the monotony of position nec- 
essary in a sedan-chair, or the fatigue of rid- 
ing. The official junks in which mandarins 
travel are very like floating houses. They are 



Junks of Various Sorts. 



295 



fitted up with every convenience, and are manned 
by an army of boatmen, who tow, pole or row 
the vessel along, as the case may be, when 
the wind is adverse. On all such boats the 




CH1^^ESE BOATS. 



flag of the mandarin on board is hoisted on 
the niast. 

Less distinguished passengers have to put up 
with less commodious junks, but what they lack 
in comfort, they make up in superior facilities 
for travelling. Not like the masts of mandarin 



296 



Travelling, 



junks, which are so arranged that the sail can 
only be hoisted when the wind is "right aft," 
the rig of the smaller passenger-vessels is such 
as to enable them to sail as near the wind as 




A mandarin's junk. 



a Portsmouth wherry. They are considerably 
lighter also, and are consequently far more 
easily towed, The fore part of such vessels 
consists of a flush deck, the boards of which 
are movable, and the holds, which, in the day- 
time, these conceal, serve as sleeping-places for 



Sea-going Junks, 297 

the crew. Captain Gill, in his "River of Golden 
Sand," thus describes the above-deck arrange- 
ments of the boat in which he lived during a 
part of his voyage up the Yang-tsze keang : — 
" The bows, for a space of twenty feet, were 
uncovered; aft of this a house about twenty 
feet long was built right across the deck, leav- 
ing no room to pass around the sides. There 
was a small open space aft of the house, and 
right over the stern another high building, 
where our skipper lived, was piled up to a 
great height. The house was about seven feet 
high, and was divided into four compartments, 
giving us a living room and two bedrooms for 
ourselves, and a room for the servants." 

The sea-going junks are very much larger 
than the river craft, and are built on different 
lines. They are high at both ends, and are 
square at bow and stern. On the latter is 
painted a phoenix standing on a rock in the 
midst of the ocean, and at the bows two large 
staring eyes, reminding one, as Mr. Tylor has 
pointed out, of the eye of Osiris, which was 
painted on the Egyptian funeral-bark that car- 
ried the dead across the lake to the western 
burial-place. The Canton-English-speaking Chi- 



298 Travelling. 

nese of Hong-kong have another explanation 
of the custom. " No have got eje," they say, 
" how can see ! no can see, how can savey ! " * 
All junks of this kind are divided into 
water-tight compartments, and are capable of 
carrying several thousand tons of cargo. They 
are generally three-masted, and carry a huge 
main-sail, made like the others, of matting. The 
rudder projects considerably beyond the stern, 
and is large in proportion compared with those 
of European vessels, giving the helmsman im- 
mense power of turning the vessel. The choice 
of felicitous names by which to christen the 
junks is a matter of serious consideration to 
the owners wlio love to adorn the masts and 
rudders with mottoes of good omen. Though 
possessed of the compass, Chinese sailors are 
without the knowledge necessar}^ for taking- 
nautical observations, and consequently they are 
compelled to hug the land, or, where that is 
impossible, to trust themselves entirely to the 
guidance of the compass until they reach some 
coast with which they are acquainted. 

In these circumstances it may readily be im- 
agined that the loss of junks and lives on the 

* Having no eye, how can it see ? not seeing, how can it know ? 



Typhoons Sweep the Sea. 299 

Chiua coasts is annually very large. Not only 
are there the ordinary difficulties of navigation 
to be contended with, but the southern waters 
are periodically visited by typhoons, which 







CHINESE COASTING VESSELS. 

sweep the seas affected by then, of every iunk 
outside the shelter of harbor, and even within 
these limits do incalculable .l.mage. In 1862 
and 1871 the neighborhood of Canton was de^ 



300 Travelling. 

vastated by two such storms, and, says Arch- 
deacon Gray, "these were, if possible, surpassed 
in violence, and in the number of casualities 
which attended them, by a typhoon which visited 
Hong-kong and Macao in the month of Sep- 
tember, 1874. According to the inhabitants, 
this destructive cyclone was the greatest ca- 
lamity which had befallen Hong-kong and Macao 
within the memory of man. It has been reck- 
oned that twenty thousand persons perished in 
the seas and rivers of the province of Kwang- 
tung on that occasion. 

The immense number of people who live in 
boats on the rivers in this part of China render 
typhoons especiall}^ destructive. For the .most 
part these boat-people are not of Chinese origin, 
but are remnants of the aborigines of the 
country. They are known as Tanka, and are 
nearly related to the Miaoa-tsze of Southern and 
Western China. At the present day there is 
not much in their appearance to distinguish 
them from the Chinese, except that they are 
more vivacious in manner, and brighter in coun- 
tenance ; and they have so entirely discarded 
their own language in favor of Chinese that 
their speech in no way betrays them. They 



Tankaa Ostracised. - 801 

are regarded with an affectation of contempt 
by the Cantonese, who have nicknamed them 
Shwui ke^ " Water fowl," or Eoi ch'at^ *' Sea 
otters." At various times they have been much 
persecuted, and attempts have not been want- 
ing to subject them to complete ostracism. Even 
now marriages between the Tankas and Can- 
tonese are rarely celebrated, and their youths 
are not allowed to compete at the literary exam- 
inations. That the race has ever survived is 
a constant wonder, seeing the hourly and al- 
most momentary danger of drowning in which 
the children live on board their boats. That 
they do not all fall overboard from the unpro- 
tected decks is only another proof that human 
beings can adapt themselves to any circum- 
stances. The only precaution that is ever 
taken, even in the case of infants, is to tie 
an empty gourd between their shoulders, so that, 
should they fall into the water, they may be 
kept afloat until help comes. Hardly a less 
cause for amazement is the way in which whole 
families and large families pack themselves away 
in their boats. A space which would appear 
infinitely cramped and confined to one of us 
serves a father and mother, sometimes a mother- 



302 



Travelling, 



in-law, and a host of children, for every pur- 
pose of life. They are born in their boats, 
they marry in their boats, and they die there. 
An important advantage of travelling by 
boat in China is, that by so doing one 
avoids the necessity of going to inns. He carries 




PASSENGER BOATS. 



everything he wants with him. The stove that 
cooks the boatmen's dinner cooks his also, and 
even in the smallest passenger boats he may 
sleep comfortably, protected from rain and 
cold by the mat-covering. Compared with the 



A Raised Brick Bed-place. 303 

accommodation commonly found in village inns, 
boats are clean and commodious. Except in 
very large inns, a single courtyard surrounded 
by mean and dirty rooms is all that is at the 
disposal of travellers. The kitchen and offices 
adjoin the entrance, and in the four or five 
other apartments live the host and his family, 
and there also are lodged the travellers who 
present themselves. In the north of China the 
most conspicuous object in a room of an inn 
is the kang, or raised brick bed-place, which 
generally extends along the whole side of the 
chamber. It is built hollow, so as to admit, 
in cold weather, of a fire of brushwood being 
lighted inside. The caloric thus communicated 
quickly heats the bricks through, and the weary 
traveller finds a warm place in which to roll 
himself in his bedding. Even when thus com- 
fortably placed he must be a hardened sleeper 
who can forget in slumber the noises which 
are constantly going on around him. It is sel- 
dom that among the inhabitants of an inn 
there is not a guitar and a guitarist, and long 
into the night the melancholy notes of this in- 
strument, which would be provocative of sleep 
were it not for the shrill, long drawn-out notes 



304 Travelling* 

which diversify Chinese airs, wail through the 
rooms. When at last these cease to disturb, 
the silence which follows only makes more au- 
dible the quarrels and fights between the ponies 
and mules which stand in the stable, or some- 
times in the open courtyard. When towards 
morning these sounds have died away the trav- 
eller is fortunate if he is not tormented with 
the crowing of cocks, which not unfrequently 
landlords, and those of their guests who wish 
to make an early start, tie beneath their beds, 
and which, as ma}^ be imagined, keep up a 
shrill chorus on the approach of day. 

Another means of travelling remains to be 
noticed, and one peculiar to China, namely, by 
wheelbarrow. On the plains, in the northern 
portion of the empire, it is not at all unusual 
to see one or two persons seated on a wheel- 
barrow, which is propelled by a man or men, 
whose labors are lightened when going with 
the wind by a sail which is hoisted on a mov- 
able mast. Doctor Williamson, in his " Journeys 
in North China," thus describes these means 
of conveyance : — " Here we met many of their 
extraordinary wheelbarrows moving along on dry 
ground with a sail set, each barrow having a 



Wheelbarrows with Sails. 306 

great wheel in the centre, finely balanced. 
Those we saw were loaded heavily, and had a 
large sheet of cloth set on a framework in 
front; many of these sails were so rigged as 
to be capable of being raised or reefed at 
pleasure, the ropes or braces being attached to 
a hook close to the driver. We have never 
seen these wheelbarrows without pity. The 
strain to the men who manage them is enor- 
mous; indeed, we have never witnessed human 
beings under such heavy labor. We met many 
with fourteen bean-cakes on one barrow, equal to 
seven small donkey-loads ; and often saw six 
bales of cotton on one barrow, though two 
are considered sufficient for a mule ; but hu- 
man labor is cheaper than animal. In many 
cases there were two men to one harrow, one 
dragging and another pushing ; but in such 
cases the load was increased," 

Another traveller writing on the subject, also 
speaks of the enormous loads carried on these 
barrows: — "We saw a large wheelbarrow so 
heavily laden that, while it required only one 
man to guide and manage it from behind, two 
men were employed, one on each side, to steady 

and force it along, while a fourth man was 
20 



«506 Travelling, 

engaged iu driving two mules and one ass, 
which were fastened abreast to the front part 
of the vehicle, in order to assist in its pro- 
gress." 

At the present day, however, there are not 
wanting signs that before long the "iron horse" 
will have to be added to the list of the means 
of travelling in China. The knowledge of the 
material results of Western civilization which 
has been gained of late years by the officials 
of China, with the example set by Japan of 
the practicability of their adoption in Eastern 
countries, has stirred the minds of some of 
the most powerful men in China on the sub- 
ject of introducing railways and telegraphs into 
the " Flowery Land." The advantages of rail- 
ways also, in a military sense, will be a power- 
ful argument for their adoption, and in the 
physical features of the country, few obstacles 
will be found to their construction. Over the 
vast plains of Northern China scarcely a gra- 
dient would be necessary, and through the 
hilly and mountainous districts the routes marked 
out by the existing highways would easily 
yield to the engineer's skill. Both from their 
natural aptness, and from the fact of their 




A WHEELBARROW WITH SAIL. 



Magnificent System of Highivays. 309 

striking all the great centres of trade, these 
highways will, when the time comes for laying 
down the rails, probably direct the course of 
the lines. 

Nothing is more suggestive of the former 
greatness of the empire, and of its present de- 
generate condition, than its -magiiificent system 
of highways, and the uncared-for, miserable 
state in which they now are. From Peking, as 
the political centre of the " Middle Kingdom," 
four orreat main roads radiate. One g^oes north 
to Urga by way of Seueu-hwa Foo; passing 
tlie Great Wall, at Chang-Kea . Kow ; another 
enters Mongolia through the Koo-pei Kow, and 
passes in a northeasterly direction to Fung-ning, 
where it turns northwest and continues on to 
Dolanor; a third strikes eastward by way 
of Tung-chow, Yung-ping Foo, Shan-hai-kwan, 
King-chow-Foo, Moukden Kirin, Ning-gu-ta, and 
on to Poissiet, a Russian port on the east- 
ern coast of the continent; and a fourth 
which trends in southwesterly direction to Paou- 
ting Foo, Tai-yuen Foo, Tung-kwan, the cel- 
ebrated fortress at the point where the Yellow 
River after pursuing a southerly course, turns 
eastward to the sea, and Se-ngan Foo in 



310 Travelling, 

Shen-se. At this point it bifurcates, one branch 
turning northwest to Kan-suh and Tibet, and 
the other continuing the original direction 
through Sze-chuen to Siam. At Paou-ting Foo 
also, two highways diverge from the main road, 
one leading to Nanking and another to Nan- 
chang Foo on the Po-yang Lake, where travel- 
lers embark on the Kea River for Canton. 

The original construction of these roads was 
as masterly as their design was magnificent. 
The bridges by which they cross all but the 
largest rivers were all well built, and many of 
them were handsome structures ; the passage 
through mountain-gorges and hilly districts was 
in all cases ably executed in spite of often 
great engineering difficulties ; and the width 
of the roadways, from seventy to eighty feet, 
gave ample room for the passage or camels, 
carts, sedan-chairs, and beasts of burden which 
frequented them. Many of these roads are 
planted on each side with rows of trees, and 
at every ten Chinese miles there stands a sig- 
nal-tower, on which, in by-gone days, when evil 
threatened, fires where lighted, which at night 
gave warning of danger by their flames, and 
in the day-time were made to emit dense clouds 



In Cases of Emergency. 311 

of smoke to serve the same purpose. At fre- 
quent intervals are the remains of guard-houses, 
where soldiers used to be stationed for the 
protection of travellers, and wherever necessary 
wells and troughs are provided for the use of 
men and beasts. Inns and tea-houses repeat 
themselves constantly along the lines of route, 
and post-horses stand ready prepared in the 
stables of the frequent post-houses to relieve at 
the instant the tired steeds of the official 
couriers. In cases of emergency these men are 
said to travel over two hundred English miles 
a day. They carry a few hen's feathers fas- 
tened to the top of their lanterns as a signal 
of their commission, and their despatches are 
tied in a parcel on their backs. The speed 
with which they travel is illustrated by the 
following mention made by Captain Gill, of a 
nocturnal visit of one at a little village in 
Western China : — '' The clatter of an imperial 
despatch from Peking awoke the echoes of the 
slumbering village at three o'clock in the morn- 
ing; a few dogs barked, a cock crowed, but 
in less than a minute the rattle of the hoofs 
was lost in the distance, and the place lapsed 
into its normal silence." 



CHAPTER XII. 



HONORS 



rpHE question, What 
shall be done to the 
man whom the king 
delighteth to honor ? 
is one which receives 
different answers in al- 
most every country in 
the world. In all, how- 
ever, some accession of 
dignity, or insignia of 
honor, are the rewards 
awaiting those who have deserved well of 
their country. The satisfaction arising from 
popular fame is short-lived, and some more 
lasting evidence is therefore demanded of the 
favor of the sovereign. In China, the highest 
rewards for military services are unlike all 
other official honors which die with the wearer, 

312 




Titles of Nohility, 813 

and are hereditary. Nine titles of nobility, 
viz., Kung^ or duke, How^ or marquis, Pih^ 
or earl, Tsze^ or viscount, Nan^ or baron, and 
King cK^ Too-yii^ E^e Too-yii Yun Ke-yii^ 
and Ngan K'e-yu^ which may be considered 
equivalent to as many degrees of knighthood, 
are set apart for military heroes. With the 
exception of the last title, all these are heredi- 
tary during a specified number of lives, rang- 
ing from twenty-six for a Kung^ to one for a 
Yun K'e-yii, They have the peculiarity also, 
on occasions, of not only descending to future 
generations, but of ennobling the dead, and 
especially those who have been killed in battle. 
The system of conferring posthumous hon- 
ors of various kinds is very common, and is 
not by any means confined to the victims of 
war. It is practised in the case of officials 
who lose their lives at sea or in the inland 
waters while travelling on duty, of virtuous 
sovereigns, of chaste widows, of filial sons, 
and of patriots. Such rewards are often only 
titles of honor, which are not hereditary, and 
which may be either conferred directly on the 
meritorious person, or granted to him posthu- 
mously, or may be bestowed on his wife, his 



314 Honors, 

parents, or his grandparents. As in the case 

of the hereditary patents mentioned above, these 

titles are divided into nine ranks, each of 

which is subdivided into two grades, and are 

as follows : — 1 a. Kwang lull ta foo , b. Yung 

luh ta foo; 2 a. Tsze ching ta foo^ b. Tung 

fung ta foo\ 3 a Tung e ta foo^ b. Chung e 

ta foo ; 4 a. Chung Men ta foo^ b. Ch'aoe ta 

foo; 5 a. Fung ching ta foo^ b. Fung chih ta 

foo ; 6 a. ChHng tih lang^ b. Joo lin lang ; 

7 a. Wan lin lang, b. CKing sze lang; 8 a. 

Sew chih lang, b. Sew chih tso lang ; 9 a. Tang 

sze lang, b. Tang sze tso lang. The wives of 

officers on whom these titles are conferred are 

styled, respectively, 1. Yih p'in foo Jin, 2. 

Urh p'in foo jin, 3. Shuh jin, 4. Kung jiUy 

5. E. jin, 6. Ngan jin, 7. Joo Jin, 8. Pa p'in 

joo jin, 9, Kin pHn joo jin. 

These titles are highly prized by those upon 
whom they are bestowed, and invariably ac- 
company the mention of their names in all 
state papers and family records, as well as on 
their funeral cards, ancestral tablets, and tomb- 
stones. "The patents," says Mr. Mayers, in 
his " Chinese Government," " are inscribed on 
long scrolls of damask silk, woven in live colors, 



The Yellow Riding -Jacket. 315 

with figures of the phoenix in relief, upon which 
the particulars of the grant are inscribed success- 
ively in the Chinese and Manchoo languages." 
To military officers, as rewards of distinguished 
services, are conferred, not only honorary titles, 
such as Tseang keun^ " general," etc., but ar- 
ticles of clothing, among which the most cov- 
eted is the yellow riding-jacket. This jacket is 
supposed to be worn only when in attendance 
on the emperor, and though it is invariably 
called "yellow," the color, as a matter of fact, 
follows that of the banner to which the re- 
cipient belongs. Only two Europeans have been 
granted this distinction, namely. Colonel Gordon, 
and M. Giguel, the Commandant of the Foo- 
chow Arsenal. 

To Colonel Gordon also were presented by 
the emperor four "suits" of clothes, the first 
of which, a " suit of court-clothes," consisted 
of an embroidered robe, a heavenly-blue satin 
jacket embroidered with insignia of office, a 
moon-colored camlet coat, a moon-colored satin 
collar, a sea-dragon court-cap, a purple cap 
button, a jadite holder for a peacock's feather 
on the cap, a peacock's feather, an untrimmed 
court-cap, a purple quartz button, a white jade- 



316 Honors, 

holder for a peacock's feather, a peacock's feather, 
a necklace of golden amber beads, a girdle, a 
sash-purse, and a pair of satin boots. The 
second, or variegated suit was made up of a 
silk robe embroidered with four-clawed dragons, 
a heavenly-blue Nanking camlet jacket, a rice- 
colored spring camlet robe, a moon-colored 
gauze ■ collar, a floss silk cap, a coral button 
of the first rank, a white jade-holder for a 
peacock's feather, a peacock's feather, a peach- 
stone necklace, a stone-blue silk girdle, a sash- 
purse, and a pair of satin boots. The third, 
or "suit of ordinary clothes," consisted of a 
pale silver Nanking camlet robe, a heavenl}- 
blue Nanking camlet jacket, a spring gauze robe 
of the color of "lake water," a fringed official 
summer-cap, a red coral button of the first 
rank, a flesh-colored holder for a peacock's 
feather, a peacock's feather, a white jade girdle- 
clasp, a stone-blue silk girdle, a small knife, a 
red snuff-box, a purse, a letter-case, a fan-case, 
a large and small purse, and a pair of satin 
boots. The fourth, or " walking-suit," con- 
sisted of a blue Nanking camlet robe, a yellow 
Nanking riding-jacket, a spring camlet robe of 
the color of "lake water," a drab felt fighting- 



Peacock^ Feathers, 317 

coat, a "victorious cap," a foreign porcelain 
button of the first rank, a long crane-shaped red 
holder for a peacock's feather, a peacock's 
feather, a set of double-forked sable tails, a 
stone-blue silk girdle, a waist-knife, a walking 
sash-purse, and a pair of satin boots. 

Next to the yellow jacket, the peacock's 
feather is the imperial reward which is most 
highly prized, and of this distinguished decora- 
tion there are three ranks. The highest is the 
San yen hwa-ling^ or three-eyed peacock's feather, 
which is conferred only on imperial princes, or 
nobles of the highest degree, or for the most 
signal military services. The second, the 
Shwang yen hwa-ling^ or " double-eyed pea- 
cock's feather," is bestowed upon lesser dignita- 
ries, and for less conspicuous merit. And the 
third, the Tan yen hwa-Ung, or " single-eyed pea- 
cock's feather," is given as a reward for good 
service, without regard to rank. Of late years 
the necessities of the imperial exchequer have 
been such as to compel the government to sell 
rank in the open market, and among other in- 
signia of imperial favor " single-eyed peacock's 
feathers " have been freely purchased. One 
other kind of feather, known as the Lan ling, 



318 Honors, 

"blue feather," or more commonly Lao hwa 
ling^ " crow's feather," is reserved for all officials 
under the sixth rank who have won their spurs 
on the battle-field, and, according to regulation, 
it is a distinction which is open also to the 
rank and file of the imperial guard. More 
commonly private soldiers receive as a reward 
for merit an oblong plate of thin silver, on 
which is inscribed the character Shang^ *' re- 
ward." 

By the present dynasty a Manchoo citle of 
distinction has been imported into the Chinese 
service, and is now much coveted, both for the 
honor it brings, and for the increased allow- 
ances that the bearers of it enjoy when on ac- 
tive service. Ba-foo-roo. '* Brave," is a title 
which by imperial order is added to the names 
of soldiers who have performed acts of gal- 
lantry in the field, and, in cases of more than 
ordinary merit, it is supplemented by prefixed 
epithets such as "magnanimous ' and "heroic." 

As an additional mark of the imperial ap- 
preciation for military services rendered, it is 
permitted to certain officers to ride on horseback 
a certain distance within the outer gateways of 
the palace when bidden to an audience, instead 



Honorary Portals. 319 

of being obliged to dismount at the gates of 
the ''forbidden cit}^," as all officials now are 
who do not possess this privilege. 

In China, as elsewhere, it is fully recognized 
that the same power which grants honors and 
privileges may at any time withdraw them, 
and each and all of the distinctions men- 
tioned are revocable by imperial decree ; nor 
is this power allowed to remain a dead letter. 
The Peking Gazette frequently contains edicts 
stripping offending officials of their yellow 
jackets, their patents of nobility, and their 
titles Ba-Voo-roo^ etc., or reducing the number 
of eyes in peacock's feathers, or changing the 
colors of the buttons worn by them, either 
temporarily or permanently. 

The bestowal of imperial honors is by no 
means confined to officials of either service, 
or to members of either sex. In every city in 
the empire are to be seen Pai low^ or "hono- 
rary portals," stretching across the streets, 
which have been erected by imperial order to 
perpetuate the rare virtues of some filial daugh- 
ter or chaste widow. It might be argued that 
the existence of these laudatory monuments 
points to tlie rarity of the virtues which they 



320 Hi 



onors. 



commemorate, and this is, to a certain extent, 
no doubt true; at the same time, the formali- 
ties to be observed, and the expenses incurred 
in obtaining the necessary decrees, are so 
burdensome that doubtless the friends of many 
fit candidates for the honor allow them to waste 
their sweetness on the desert air of obscurity. 
As an instance of the merit in such cases de- 
manded, and of the reward granted, the fol- 
lowing edict in the Peking G-azette of May 
25th, 1877, affords a good example. Le Hung- 
chang, the Viceroy of Chih-li, there reports the 
case of a Miss Wang, who, from her earliest 
youth, " exhibited a decorous propriety of con- 
duct and a love of study. She was a diligent 
reader of Lew Heang's 'Lives of Virtuous 
Women,' and the poems of Muh Lan. At 
tlie age of thirteen it was proposed to betroth 
her. At the first hint of this reaching her ears, 
she retired to her room, and drew, with a 
pointed instrument, blood from her arm, witli 
which she wrote a sentence declaring her in- 
tention to remain single in order to devote 
herself to the care of her parents. At the age 
of eighteen she refused in like manner; and 
when, in 1852, the remains of her father and 



■''She aashed Her Armr 321 

second brother, who had perished at the tak- 
ing of Woo-ch'ang by tlie rebels, were brought 
back to Kao-yeo, she exclaimed, amid her 
tears, that since she could not follow her 
father to the tomb, her mother being still alive, 
her blood should at least serve to varnish his 
coffin; so saying, she gashed her arm with a 
knife, allowing a stream of blood to mingle 
with the lacquer of the coffin. She had reached 
the age of twenty-six when her father's obse- 
quies were completed, and her mother and elder 
brother were anxious that she should marry ; 
but she steadfastly refused to do so, and de- 
voted herself to attending upon her mother 
with whom she shortly afterwards removed to 
Choh-chow, on her brother's receiving an ap- 
pointment at Peking as a reward for his ser- 
vices. She allowed no other hands but her 
own to wait upon her mother, and when, in 
1862, her mother was attacked with dangerous 
illness, she cut a piece of flesh from her 
left thigh to be administered as a remedy. In 
less than a year a fresh attack of illness super- 
vened, and she cut a piece of flesh from her 
right thigh on this occasion, recover}- ensuing 

as before. On subsequent occasions, when the 
21 



322 Honors, 

parent was attacked with slight ailments, she 
applied burning incense-stick to her arms, and 
used the calcined flesh to mingle with the 
remedies prescribed, with invariably successful 
results. After her mother's death, in 1872, 
she refused all sustenance during a period of 
three days, and was at last with difficulty per- 
suaded to take food. Her brother shortly af- 
terwards died, whereupon she escorted his re- 
mains to the ancestral home at Kao-yeo, and 
on returning performed the same journey once 
more in attendance on her mother's coffin. The 
devotion and energy she has displayed exceed 
what might be expected from one of the op- 
posite sex, and it is solicited, in view of the 
wide repute which has been gained by her 
virtues at Choh-chow, that a monument may be 
erected to her honor under imperial sanction. — 
Granted by rescript." 

A similar honor is frequently conferred on 
young ladies who, their betrothed having died 
before marriage, devote themselves to a life of 
single blessedness, and to the discharge of filial 
duties towards the parents of their proposed 
husbands. Even the passive virtue of lon- 
gevit}^ comes within the far-reaching circle of 



Conspicuously a Glory. 323 

imperial favors. The Chinese, and especially 
Chinese women, are not long-lived, and when, 
therefore, a case occurs of a lady living to an 
extraordinary age, the circumstance is regarded, 
in the words of the usual edict issued, as 
" conspicuousl}^ a glory to our reign, and an 
auspicious omen for our people," and a tablet, 
inscribed in obedience to the order of the 
emperor by the Imperial Studio and j;he Han- 
lin College, is the least honor which is con- 
ferred upon her. 




CHAPTER XIIL 



NAMES. 




LIKE most in- 
stitutions in 
China, sur- 
names have a 
long history. 
Thousands of 
years before the 
Aryan races 
adopted the 
haphazard epi- 
thets whicli 
served them for 
surnanies, the Chinese had established for them- 
selves tribal names, which are the true sur- 
names. History tell us that the Emperor 
Hwang-te (b. c. 2697) was the first to intro- 
duce si7ig or surnames. He had, we are told, 
a family of twenty-five sons by four wives. 

324 



The Earliest Sing, 325 

To thirteen of them he gave his own tradi- 
tional name of Ke^ and to the remaining twelve 
he gave eleven sing^ namely K'e, Yui, Tdng^ 
CJiin^ Jin^ Kow^ Le^ Kih^ Hwdn^ and E, Fol- 
lowing the example thus set, succeeding em- 
perors conferred names on meritorious sub- 
jects, taken either from their native places, 
countries, or cities, or chosen on account of epi- 
thets attaching to them, or of their titles, trades, 
dwellings, or personal characteristics. The earli- 
est sing are said to have been derived from the 
mother's side, and for this reason, in most of 
such, tlie hieroglj^phic for a woman enters into 
the composition of the compound characters 
which express them in writing. 

It is noticeable that, from the earliest times, 
the sing were conferred by the emperor, and 
no Chinaman has, to the present day, ever had 
a right either to adopt a sing or to change it, 
without imperial sanction. So fully is this 
recognized, and so strictly tribal are the sing, 
that an inexorable law forbids a man from mar- 
rying a woman bearing the same sing as him- 
self. When this law was first instituted is not 
quite clear. It is certain that during the Shang 
and earlier dynasties there existed no such 



326 Names. 

bar to intermarriage, but we find it in force 
during the Chow Dynasty, and since that 
time it has been rigidh^ adhered to. As the 
years went on, the list of sing rapidly in- 
creased, until at the present day there are, 
according to K'ang-he's great encyclopaedia, 
three thousand and thirty-eight single sing^ and 
one thousand six hundred and nineteen double 
ones. The late Professor S. Wells Williams, of 
Yale College, gives only one thousand six hun- 
dred and seventy-eight and one hundred and 
seventy-six respectively. 

Legend says that Hwang-te arranged the 
twelve siiig which he conferred on his sons by 
the notes he blew from a jewelled flute. Like 
many other early Chinese legends, however, it 
is probable that this one arose from a misap- 
prehension of the original Ku wan text, and 
that the fact that the number of the musical 
notes fixed by Hwang-te agreed with the 
number of his son's sing gave currency to 
it. At the present day, the surnames in 
the well-known work on the Pih sing are, 
following this tradition, arranged under the 
twelve musical notes. The Chinese pride them- 
selves much on thi possession of surnames, and 



A Badge of Superiority. ^^'i 



no foreigner, not even the countrymen of the 
reigning Manchoo sovereigns, are allowed to 
borrow them, or even officially to use their 
own surnames in China. In the same way 
the Annamese flaunt their possession of sing 
as a badge of superiority over the Cambodi- 
ans, who are not so privileged, and who are 
thus driven to distinguish each other by names 
crystallizing either physical or mental char- 
acteristics. At the present day there yet linger 
traces of the old tribal associations. Such 
names of places as Le kea chwang and Chang 
kea wan recall the time when the Le family 
were in possession of the first-named village, 
and the Chang family owned the shores of 
the luan or bay where the allied fleets rendez- 
voused in 1860 before the attack on the Taku 
forts. In every town and large village, also, 
every family has its ancestral hall, in which 
are placed the tablets of the deceased heads 
of the various households Avhich constitute the 
famil3', and where the great family re-unions, 
especially that known as the autumnal sacri- 
fice, are held. 

It is customary for the members of a fam- 
ily establishing an ancestral hall, to subscribe 



328 Names. 

together a sum for the purchase of a piece 
of land, the income of which is devoted to 
the maintenance of the hall. This land, as 
well as the hall and its furniture, are vested 
in the entire family, and can be alienated only 
by the unanimous consent of the elders of all 
the households interested in them. The first 
auDual festival of any importance is held on 
one of the early days of the first month, when 
the representatives of the various households 
stand in a circle around the tablets in the prin- 
cipal room, and with joined hands, together bow 
and worship before the tablets of their ances- 
tors. After this and other ceremonies have been 
performed, the assembled worshippers sit down 
to a feast. From the eleventh to the fifteenth 
of the same month, acts of worship are per- 
formed, and in the second month the vernal 
sacrifices, consisting of meats, vegetables, and 
fruits, are offered before the shrines of the 
deceased. In the seventh month mock money 
and mock clothing are burnt, under the delu- 
sion that, by so doing, the things they rep- 
resent will pass to the dead, who will thus 
be prepared to withstand the cold of the ap- 
proacliing winter. The principal festival is 



''Three Cups of Winer 329 

later in the autumn, when the sacrifices offered 
and the ceremonies performed are of a more 
important and formal kind than on other 
occasions. Describing a particular festival of 
this kind, Mr. Doolittle, in his ''Social Life 
of the Chinese," says: "A professor of cere- 
monies was present, directing the worshippers 
when to kneel, bow, and rise up. The faces 
of these worshippers were turned towards the 
tablets. The head person among them was a 
lad of some six or eight years old, being the 
eldest son of the eldest son, etc., of the re- 
mote male ancestor from whom all the Chi- 
nese, having his ancestral name, living in the 
city claimed to have descended. He was the 
chief of the clan, according to the Chinese law 
of primogeniture. This lad, instructed by a 
professor of ceremonies, took the lead in the 
worship, all the rest kneeling down when he 
knelt, bowing their heads towards the ground 
when he bowed his head, and rising to their 
feet when he rose. The head man, at the 
proper time during the ceremony, while on his 
knees, all the rest of the worshippers being 
also on their knees, received three cups of 
wine, which he poured out, one by one, upon 



330 Names. 

some straw placed in the bottom of a certain 
vessel. These cups were then re-filled and 
replaced on a table before the tablets, 
whence they were taken by the professor of 
ceremonies. Before the wine was poured out, 
he lifted the cups up reverently in front of 
him, as though offering them to the spirits 
supposed to be in the tablets. Three bowls 
of vegetables were presented ... in like man- 
ner, and then taken away and placed upon a 
table. The professor of ceremonies . . . knelt 
down, and read, or rather chanted, a kind of 
sacrificial prayer to the spirits of the departed 
ancestors of the company present. They, be- 
ing all the while on their knees, then bowed 
down their heads towards the ground three 
times, when several rolls of coarse silk, or 
something in imitation of silk, were burnt. 
The great drum was beaten. All rose up at 
the command of the professor, and left their 
allotted places. The cooked provisions intended 
for the feast were soon arranged on tables, 
in the proper . . . manner at feasts. The rep- 
resentatives of the families interested in the 
hall took their seats, and partook of the feast 
provided in the presence, as they believed, of 



The Milk Name. 331 

their ancestors. All of them were males, no 
female being allowed to be present or to par- 
ticipate in the festivities or solemnities of such 
occasions. At the close of the feasting, each 
representative took home with him some of 
the flesh of the pig which had been offered 
whole before the tablets." The flesh thus 
taken home is highly prized, it being believed 
that those who partake of it are likely to be- 
come the parents of sons. 

In addition to the Sing^ every Chinaman 
possesses one or more personal names. In his 
infant days a designation known as his " milk 
name " is conferred upon him, and subsequently, 
on his arriving at the age of puberty, a ming^ 
or cognomen, is given him. In after-life, more 
especially if he becomes an author, he takes 
a tsze^ or literary appellation, and it is by 
this that he is afterwards best known in every- 
day life and in the literar}^ world. Often, 
again, he adds one or more haou, pseudonyms, 
to his other names, which not unfrequently 
he uses on the title-page of his works, thus 
considerably adding to the difficulty of identi- 
fying him. The case of the well-known phi- 
losopher Choo He affords an instance of the 



332 Names. 

number of names which a Chinaman may ac- 
cumulate. To bis Sing^ Choo, was added his 
ming^ He. Subsequently, he adopted the tsze, 
Yuen-hwuy, and Chung-hwuy, and at different 
times, afterwards, christened himself witli the 
pseudonyms Hwuy-gau, " The dark cottage " ; 
Hwuy-ung, " The obscure gentleman " ; Ts'ang- 
chow t'un ung, "The concealed gentleman of 
Ts'ang-chow " ; Yun kuh laou jin, " The old 
man of the cloudy valley" ; and Tsze yang, 
from the name of his study. 

As a rule, high-sounding or felicitous names 
are chosen, for the ming and tsze., and, gen- 
erally, the pseudonyms adopted ' by authors 
bear depreciatory meanings, or indications of 
their dwellings. For example, we meet with 
such ming as " The fairy guest " ; " The pacifier 
of the age"; "Protracted longevity"; or "The 
shield of the empire," and among pseudon3nns 
we find "The dull scholar"^ "The obscure 
student " ; " The stupid old man " ; as well 
as " The western river " ; " The mountain val- 
ley," and " The five mountain peaks." 



CHAPTER XIV. 



THE CHINESE YEAE. 



full 



year. 



^ROM time im- 
memorial, that 
is to say, from 
a date anterior 
to the arrival 
of the "black- 
haired " race in 
China, the Chi- 
nese divided 
their year into 
twelve lunar 
months, with an 
occasional inter- 
calary month to 
make up the re- 
quired number 
of days for the 
The earliest written character for a 

333 




334 The Chinese Year. 

year represented a grain of wheat, which is 
preserved in the modern form of the same char- 
acter which is now pronounced nien. The 
months were in those early days called by 
names the origin of which has, according to the 
author of the earliest Chinese dictionary, the Urh 
ya^ been lost, and, in default of any intelligible 
explanation, the . lexicographer gives the list 
without attempting to elucidate them. The first 
is Tsow^ " The north corner " ; the second Jbo, 
" As, like " ; the third Ping, <•' To start in 
sleep"; the fourth Yu, ''I": the fifth Eao, 
"Bright"; the sixth Ts'ze A, '' Sacrificial Table"; 
the seventh Seang, " To examine, to assert, 
to watch " ; the eighth Chwang, " Stout, Strong, 
Abundant"; the ninth Huen, "Dark"; the 
tenth Yang, " Bright, " ; " The sun," " The 
day"; the eleventh Koo, "A crime," "A 
failure " ; the twelfth T'soo, " Heavy dew or 
rain." Though the source from whence these 
names were derived is hidden from the Chi- 
nese, the affinity, as has already been shown, 
which we now recognize as existing between 
early Chinese and Accadian gives us a clue 
by means of which some of them at least 
may be explained. In accordance with the 



National Rejoicing, 335 

Babylonian custom, also, the year of the an- 
cient Chinese began, as at the present time, 
with the third month of the solar year. 

The fact of the introduction of an interca- 
lary month in about once every thirty months 
causes a considerable variation in the day on 
which the first day of the year falls. It 
varies between the middle of January and the 
last part of February, but whenever it occurs 
it is the signal for national rejoicing and in- 
dividual merry-making. All public offices are 
closed for the space of twenty days, and, in 
like manner, the doors of warehouses and 
shops are shut in the faces of customers. A 
day or two before the end of the old year a 
thanksgiving service is performed in each 
household, before the shrine of the tutelary 
deity, in acknowledgment of the safety and 
comfort enjoyed during the past year ; and, 
among traders of all kinds, extreme anxiety 
is manifested to collect outstanding debts, 
and to provide money for the payment of 
sums they may owe. To be a defaulter on 
New Year's Day is to lose credit and repu- 
tation, and, rather than begin a new year 
under such ill-omened circumstances, shopkeep- 



336 The Chinese Yi 



ear. 



ers often offer their stocks-in-trade at prices 
which not only leave them without a profit, 
but which are, not unfrequently, less than 
cost-price. The last night of the year is de- 
voted to preparations for the ceremonies of the 
morrow. Before daybreak the members of each 
household offer sacrifices, with many genuflec- 
tions and prayer, to Heaven and Earth, and 
to their tutelary gods. After each service 
crackers are discharged in the street or road 
with so universal a consent that the morning 
breaks perfumed with sulphur and saltpetre. 
Next to the tutelary gods the deceased ances- 
tors of the household, and after them the 
living elders of the family, receive homage 
from their kinsfolk. 

Early in the day the provincial mandarins 
pay their respects, when practicable, to the 
governors and viceroys of their respective prov- 
inces ; and, at the capital, the male members 
of the imperial household and the high officers 
of state prostrate themselves before the em- 
peror, and offer to him their congratulations 
and good wishes. In theory, this ceremony 
should be observed by every official in the 
empire ; but as this is impossible, the man- 



New Year's Calls. 337 

darins of each cit}'- repair to the emperor's 
temple, and there perform the ceremonies of 
devotion before a throne, made in exact imi- 
tation of the Dragon Throne, on whicli is 
placed a tablet bearing tlie inscription, '' May 
the emperor reign ten thousand A^ears, and ten 
times ten thousand years." The fact of many 
hundreds of thousands of mandarins throughout 
the empire simultaneously prostrating themselves 
in humble adoration before thrones, each ten- 
anted by an ascriptive tablet only, is highly 
suggestive of the power wielded by the sovereign, 
and of the extent of the superstitious awe 
with which he is surrounded. 

In private life, after the morning sacrifices 
have been performed, the men of the family 
go out to pay complimentary visits to their 
friends. A more than usual cordiality is re- 
quired of acquaintances when meeting in the 
streets, and an invariable law makes it obli- 
gatory for every one to appear on New Year's 
Day in his best attire. On a day of such 
importance and ceremony superstition is sure to 
be busy. Astrologers have laid it down that 
it is a fortunate time for making matrimonial 

engagements, marrying, setting out on a jour- 
22 



338 The Chinese Year. 

nej, ordering new clothes, beginning repairs 
to a house, or laying the foundations of one, 
for entering into business-contracts, for sow- 
ing, planting, and grinding, and, in fact, for 
ahnost every enterprise. To students of folk- 
lore the Chinese superstition of the " first 
foot " of the person first seen on New Year's 
Day will be familiar. To meet a fair man 
when first going out is an omen of good 
luck, but to meet a women is only one de- 
gree better than to meet a Buddhist priest, 
who is regarded as foreboding the worst pos- 
sible fortune. In the same way, on New 
Year's Night, a person wishing to peer into 
the future, places a sieve on an empty stove, 
and on the sieve a basin of water and a 
looking-glass. Having made these arrangements, 
lie steals out and listens for the first w^ords 
spoken by passers-by, and gathers from them 
an omen of good or evil for the coming 
twelve months. 

The leading idea among the Chinese, at New 
Year's time, is that with the new j^ear a fresh 
lease of life begins. The account of all the 
thoughts, words, and deeds of the past year 
has to be closed, and a new era breaks upon 



Boys Shout out. 389 

them with the dawn, in preparation for which 
the}^ seek to bind fortune to their chariot- 
wheels by the performance of endless super- 
stitious observances, and by calling down bless- 
ings on one another. In some parts of the 
country, on the last day of the year, boys 
shout out in the streets, Mai saou, " I will 
sell my idle ways," with the ostensibly laud- 
able desire of devoting the new year to use- 
ful labor. On the accession of an emperor 
his reign counts onl}^ from the first day of 
the year following the decease of his prede- 
cessor, who is regarded as sitting on the 
throne for the remaining months of the year 
in which he died. On each succeeding New 
Year's Day the emperor is re-enthroned, amidst 
a display of imperial insignia and the strains 
of music. In a pavilion in the palace he then 
prostrates himself before heaven and earth, and 
afterwards, as mentioned above, receives the 
congratulations of his ministers and the mem- 
bers of his household, and separately the 
obeisances of the imperial princesses and the 
ladies of the court. A state banquet follows, 
to which all the high officers, as well as 
the imperial princes, are invited. 



340 The Chinese Year. 

The evening of New Year's Day by no 
means brings to a close the festivities of the 
season, which are prolonged until after the 
fifteenth day. The first week is spent in pay- 
ing visits, exchanging presents, and feasting. 
Loose-skinned oranges are common presents in 
the south of China, at this period, from I lie fact 
of the native name for them having exactly 
the same sound as the word meaning " Good 
fortune," * and the streets of cities are 
thronged with servants carrying sweetmeats 
and cakes from house to house. From su- 
periors to inferiors presents of a mere sub- 
stantial value pass, and considerable sums of 
money are bestowed b}' the wealthy on their 
servants and dependants. Beggars reap a rich 
harvest at the houses of the well-to-do, and 
itinerant musicians levy a compulsory tax on 
their rich fellow-townsmen. 

Ladies break through the monotony of their 
lives at this season and give themselves up 
to feasting and merry-making among themselves. 
From the fourth to the seventh day they 
worship at the shrine of the goddess who pre- 

* The Chinese are ver>' fond of this kind of symbolism ; two of the commonest 
instances of which, especially on porcelain, are the use of the Bat \Fuh), to sig- 
nify " happiness," and of the sonorous stone {King), to emblematize " prosperity." 



" Obvious Paint and Cosmetics^ 341 

sides over marriage, and on the seventh they 
go in large numbers to the public gardens, 
where they show themselves off in their best 
attire and in the full disfigurement of obvious 
paint and cosmetics. When paying New Year's 
visits, it is customar}^ for ladies to carry with 
them to their friends sticks of sugar-cane which, 
however, as a matter of fact, are seldom pre- 
sented, the will being accepted, with common 
consent, for the deed. 

The evening of the fifteenth day of the 
first month, when the Feast of Lanterns is 
celebrated, is another ladies' night. For days 
previously, the lantern shops are crowded with 
purchasers, who indulge in wild fancies in the 
choice of the lanterns they buy. All are highly 
colored and are shaped in every conceivable 
mould. From the ordinary round shape, to the 
most grotesque figures of men or animals, the 
changes are rung in every variety ; and no less 
divergent than the forms are the prices asked. 
The poorest is sure to find some to suit his 
pocket, while others covered with gauze or 
silk, and tastefully painted, are within the 
reach of the wealthy only. When the night 
arrives the lanterns, which have previously been 



342 The Chinese Year, 

hung up, are lighted, and give the signal for 
the commencement of the festivities. 

The viands which have been placed on 
the family altar as an accompanying sacri- 
fice to the worship of the tutelary deit}^ 
are transferred to the dining-table, and with 
copious supplies of samshu form the family 
supper. As night advances crowds, among 
whom are numbers of ladies, who on no other 
occasion venture out after dark, throng the 
street to gaze at the illumination and, in 
some instances, to guess the riddles which are 
inscribed on lanterns hung at the doorways of 
houses. Prizes, such as parcels of tea, pencils, 
fans, etc., are given to the successful solvers 
of the rebusses, but these have little to do 
with the interest which is shown in the amuse- 
ment which, partaking of the nature of a 
literary exercise, is well suited to the national 
taste. 

With the opening of the official tribunals on 
the twentieth of the month the festivities may 
be said to come to a close, and the active 
work of the new year to begin in earnest. 
Ver}^ early on the morning of that day the 
lowest mandarins, both civil and military, open 



The Ko-Vow Repeated, 343 

their seals of oflQce in the presence of their 
subordinates. The yamnn is brilliantly lighted 
on the occasion, and with due ceremony the 
box containing the seal is placed on a table 
in the tribunal surrounded by burning candles 
and incense. The mandarin then having per- 
formed the Ko-t'ow * before it, the principal clerk 
lifts the box reverently above his head, and 
offers his congratulation to his chief. The 
seal is next taken out of the box and placed 
on the table, and again becomes the object of 
the Ko-t'ow on the part of the mandarin. Four 
impressions of the seal are made on a piece 
of red paper bearing an inscription of good 
omen, which is hung up at the gate of the 
yamun. As soon as these forms have been 
observed the mandarin goes to the yamun of 
his next superior, and there takes part in a 
similar ceremony. With him again he goes to 
the next in rank, and so on until officials of all 
grades have participated as witnesses in the open- 
ing of the vice-regal seal in the yamun of the 
provincial Governor-general. In the southern 
provinces of the empire discharges of cannon 
and crackers announce the opening of the seals; 

* Ceremony of prostration. 



344 The Chinese Year. 

and as no business is entered upon until the 
next morning, the latter part of the day and 
the evening are devoted to complimentary visits 
and merry-making. 

According to a very ancient tradition, New- 
Year's Day is called the fowl's day, the sec- 
ond the dog's day, the third the pig's day, 
the fourth the sheep's day, the fifth the cow's 
day, the sixth the horse's day, and the seventh 
man's day. During the first six days the flesh 
of all those animals to whom the days are 
dedicated are forbidden as food, and the con- 
sequence is that feasters at New Year's time 
have mainly to content themselves with such 
viands as vegetables and fish. The seventh 
day is one of great importance, and, if fine, 
it is said to presage a plenteous year ; if 
the reverse, scanty harvests and misfortunes. 
In all parts of the empire it is celebrated 
with honor. Figures, intended for the gods of 
iiappiness, rank, and longevity, cut out and 
dressed in many-colored garments, are hung 
up at the doors as omens of good luck, and, 
in some districts, pictures representing rats 
marrying women are hung up, curiously to re- 
late, with the same object. Generally it is a 



Health-giving Beans. 345 

day devoted to feasting and merry-making, and 
in the south, where the climate admits of out- 
door pleasures, picnics are common among the 
people. One of the many customs peculiar to 
the day is to put a new cloth bag full of red 
beans, in a well, and after allowing it to re- 
main there three days, distribute its contents 
among the household, the men eating seven 
of the beans each, and the women fourteen. 
This is supposed to secure them against illness 
during the year. 

As stated above, the year is divided into 
twelve months, of twenty-nine and thirty days 
each ; and as these periods represent with suf- 
ficient exactness the lunar month, it follows 
that the new moon falls on the first of every 
month, and that on the fifteenth the moon is 
at its full. The month is thus associated with 
the moon, and is called by the same name, 
and is written with the same hieroglyphic. In 
an ancient work, entitled the San fun^ part 
of which was probably written in the twenty- 
third century B. c, there is evidence that 
among some of the aboriginal tribes of China 
the year was, as among the Egyptians and 
some of the peoples of India, divided into 



346 The Chinese Year, 

three periods, known as the grass-springing pe- 
riod, the tree-reigning period, and the tree-decay- 
ing period. Under the influence of the higher 
culture of the Chinese, these divisions disap- 
peared, and the twelve months became the 
recognized parts of the year. The Chinese do, 
however, divide the year by seasons as well 
as by months, and recognize eight main di- 
visions and sixteen subsidiary ones, " which cor- 
respond to the day on which the sun enters 
the first and fifteenth degree of a zodiacal sign ; 
when an intercalary month occurs they are 
reckoned on as in other years, but the inter- 
calation is made so that only one term shall 
fall in it. Their names and approximate posi- 
tions in the foreign year are here given : — 

Feb. 5. LiH ch'un, commencement of spring. 
'' 19. Yii shui, rain-water. 

March 5. King chihy the torpid insects are excited. 

" 20. Ch'un fun, the vernal equinox. 

April 5. TsHng ming, clear brightness. 

" 20. Kuh yii, grain rains. 

May 5. Lih hea, commencement of summer. 

" 21. Seao mwan, the grain begins to fill, 

June 6. Mang chung, the grain is in ear. 

" 21. Hea CHE, the summer solstice. 

July 7. Seao shoo, slight heat. 
'' 23. Ta shoo, great beat, 



Air and Health 347 

A.ug. 7. LiH Ts'iu, commencement of autumn, 

*' 23. CNoo shoo, limit of heat. 

Sept. 8. Pih loo, white dew. 

" 23. Ts'iu fun, autumn equinox. 

Oct. 8. Han loo, cold dew. 

" 23. Seang keang, hoar-frost descends. 

Nov. 7. LiH TUNG, commencement of winter. 

" 22. Seao siieh, little snow. 

Dec. 7. Ta siieh, heavy snow. 

*' 22. Tung chi, winter solstice. 

Jan. 6. Seao han, little cold. 

*' 21. Ta han, severe cold." * 

It is considered among the Chinese that 
these periods very accurately mark the changes 
in the atmosphere which directly affect the con- 
stitution. For this reason it is customary for 
people who have both wealth and time to de- 
vote to such considerations to fortify them- 
selves against the evil effects of atmospheric 
changes by eating nourishing and invigorating 
food. Ginseng soup is largely consumed on 
these occasions, and it is said that in the 
neighborhood of Canton the flesh of black 
dogs is sought after as possessing eminently 
strengthening properties. 

The greatest festival of the year next to that 
at New Year's time, occurs at the first great 

* Professor S. Wells Williams's " Dictionary." 



348 The Chinese Year, 

divisiou of the j^ear — the commencement of 
spring. Agriculture has always held a high 
place in the estimation of the Chinese. It is 
said to have been taught to the people by the 
Emperor Shin-nung (b. c. 2737-2697), who 
has been canonized as its patron-god, and this 
imperial ancestry has entailed on each succeed- 
ing emperor the duty of leading the way for 
his subjects in the agricultural year. In 
obedience to this custom, on the arrival of 
Lih cKun, the emperor, attended by his court, 
goes out of the east gate of the capital to a 
temple set apart for the purpose, " to receive 
the spring." In like manner, as representatives 
of their imperial master, the officials in every 
provincial capital head processions which, com- 
posed of the leading gentrj- of the district and 
accompanied by bands of music and gay ban- 
ners, march through the principal streets, and 
pass out by the east gate to the appointed 
temples. Here the clay and paper images of 
oxen, and, in some cases, of men and ploughs, 
which have been brought in the procession, 
are placed on the altar, and sacrifices are of- 
fered up to the god of spring. This done, the 
images of the oxen are beaten with sticks by 



A Lad in Green. 349 

the officials, and are then destroyed ; those made 
of paper by fire, and those of clay by be- 
ing broken to pieces. The custom varies 
slightly in different places. In some, a young 
lad is chosen who must be without spot or 
blemish, and who, having been dressed in 
green clothes, is sent out into the country 
through the east gate. After a certain inter- 
val the official procession starts in the same 
direction, and meets the lad, who is worshipped 
as the god of spring, and with whom they re- 
turn to the city in triumph. A fine day is 
earnestly desired for the Lih cKun procession, 
and the saying runs that "if rain falls on the 
oxen in the procession, it will be wet for a 
hundred days." 

Connected with the Lih cKun is the turn- 
ing of the first sod by the emperor. On the 
appointed day, attended by his court and all 
the high officials of the capital, the emperor 
again goes out of the east gate to the tem- 
ple of Earth, in the grounds of which, with 
his own hand, he ploughs up nine furrows, 
while officials follow at his heels casting seed 
into the newly turned earth. As soon as his 
allotted task is finished, the imperial princes, 



350 The Chinese Year, 

holding yellow ploughs, go through the same 
formality, and following these the accompanying 
high officials perform the like duty, but with 
red in place of the imperial yellow ploughs. 

Similar ceremonies are performed in the 
provinces, and Archdeacon Gray gives the fol- 
lowing account of those witnessed by him on 
one such occasion at Canton : — " The gover- 
nor-general, the governor, the treasurer, the 
commissioner of customs, the literary chan- 
cellor, and the criminal judge of that city repair 
at an early hour, on the fifth day of the 
ploughing season ... to the temple in 
honor of Shin-nung, the god of agriculture. 
This temple is situated at an English mile be- 
yond the eastern gates of the city. Its prin- 
cipal shrine is two stories high. In the couityard, 
enclosed by walls of brick, there are three 
chambers, in the first of which certain imple- 
ments of husbandry are kept ; in the second, 
grain for seed and offerings; in the third, 
stalled 'sheep or swine, intended victims in 
honor of the god. The officials, having ar- 
ranged themselves before the altar, proceed to 
perform the Ko-t'-ow. The governor-general then 
offers to the god, as expiatory sacrifices, a sheep 



A Letter to an Idol, 351 

and a pig. Nine kinds of grain and vegetables 
are also presented as thank-offerings. The 
Ko-t'-ow is then performed once more, the offi- 
cials knocking their heads upon the earth nine 
times. Upon rising to their feet, a letter ad- 
dressed by them to the idol of the god of 
agriculture, is read aloud in the hearing of all 
assembled, the reader looking towards the idol. 
The letter, which is written according to a 
form prescribed by the Board of Ceremonies, 
runs thus : ' Upon this auspicious day, we, 
the principal officials of this city and province 
stand, O god, before thy altar, and render to 
thee, as is just, heartfelt homage. We depend 
upon thee, O god, to grant speed to the 
plough, and to give food sufficient for the 
wants of the people over whom we rule. As 
high as the heaven is above the earth, so 
great are thy virtues. The ploughing season 
has this day begun, and all agriculturists are 
now prepared to prosecute their labours with 
diligence. Nor is his imperial majesty, the 
emperor, though so high in rank, at all be- 
hind in his preparations for the discharge of such 
important duties. We, therefore, the officials of 
this city, pray to thee as in duty bound,, to 



352 The Chinese Year, 

grant us favourable seasons. Grant us, then, 
we fervently beseech thee, five days of wind, 
and afterwards ten days of rain, so that each 
stem may bear two ears of grain. Accept our 
offerings, and bless us, we pray thee.' When 
ihQy have again performed the Ko-t'-ow, knock- 
ing their heads nine times upon the ground, 
the officials put off their tunics, and proceed 
to certain government lands, which are adjacent 
to the temple, for the purpose of ploughing 
nine furrows each. Here each official, having 
been presented with a whip, is escorted to a 
plough to which a buffalo is yoked ; and when 
the word is given by a conductor of cere- 
monies, the ploughs are set in motion. At the 
head of each buffalo, to direct its course, a 
peasent is stationed, who is permitted on this 
occasion to wear a yellow jacket. Behind each 
of the illustrious ploughmen walk three or four 
officers of the civil service, whose duty it is 
tc sow, at each step, seeds of grain in the 
newly-made furrows. While the governor-gen- 
eral and his colleagues are engaged in plough- 
ing, youths in gay dresses, stationed at each 
side of the field, sing, at the very top of 
their voices, paeans in praise of the god of ag- 




SACRIFICIAL PLOWING. 



In the Family Graveyard. 855 

riculture. In a long line at the south end of 
the field stand aged husbandmen, wearing gay 
garments suited to the occasion ; while at the 
north end are a body of graduates." 

At the period Ts'ing ming., which, as stated 
above, falls generally at the beginning of April, 
is performed the rite of worshipping at the 
ancestral tombs. This is regarded as the most 
sacred duty, and he who would wilfully fail in 
performing it would be looked upon as an out- 
cast. On the morning of the day in question 
the male members of each household repair to 
the family graveyard, where, having weeded and 
swept the tombs, they light incense, and ar- 
range in front of the grave sacrificial offerings 
consisting of boiled pork, fish, poultr}^ cakes, 
tea and wine. The family representative then 
performs the Ko-t'-ow in honor of the deceased, 
and each in turn follows his example. Crackers 
are then fired and paper money burnt, on the 
ashes of which is poured out a libation of wine. 
A second time the Ko-t'ow is performed, and 
this brings to a close the ancestral worship, 
which is a mixture of homage and prayer. It 
is the universal belief that tlie spirits of an- 
cestors watch over and protect tlieir descend- 



356 The Chinese Year, 

ants during life, and that they pass backwards 
and forwards between their resting-places in the 
graves and the dwellings of tlieir representa- 
tives. It is obviously important, therefore, that 
there should be no let or hindrance to their 
power of ingress and egress to and from the 
tombs, and the first object of the visitors to 
the graves is to clear away all and every ob- 
struction which may have accumulated during 
the preceding twelve months. The Ko-t'-ow and 
sacrificial offerings satisfy the prevailing idea of 
homage and prayer, and by their due observ- 
ance are supposed to secure the protection and 
support of the dead. 

Having reached this stage, it is considered 
necessary, for the comfort of the spirits, to 
propitiate the local deity by the presentation of 
offerings consisting of meat, wine and paper 
money. With a strange mixture of superstition 
and materialism, they further follow in im- 
agination the ancestral spirits into Hades, and 
picture them seated at table enjoying the viands 
presented to them as sacrificial offerings, but 
subject to annoyance from the numbers of beg- 
gars who haunt the unseen regions. To relieve 
the spirits from the importunities of these un- 



Funeral Bake-Meats. 357 

fortunates, they offer to them sacrifices of 
cakes, paper clothing, and paper money. The 
mediate and prospective well-being of the an- 
cestral spirits having thus been provided for, 
the living worshippers seat themselves on the 
ground, and make a hearty meal of the sacri- 
ficial meats, from which the spirits are sup- 
posed to have extracted only the essential and 
immaterial elements. 

It is, perhaps, due to the belief in the ne- 
cessity of not allowing any obstruction to grow 
up between the tomb of an ancestor and the 
dwelling of his representative, coupled with a 
regard for the health of the inhabitants, that 
the Chinese never permit burials within a city 
wall. Graveyards are almost invariably made 
in the open country, either on the sides of 
hills or on plains. The feeling against confin- 
ing the dead, even temporarily, within city 
walls, is so great, that the relatives of an in- 
habitant of a cit}^ who dies away from home 
are not allowed to bring the corpse back to 
its former dwelling. As a rule, funeral proces- 
sions from houses in cities are bidden by law 
to take the most direct route from their start- 
ing points to the nearest city gates, and only 



358 The Chinese Year, 

in the case of a meritorious official who dies 
ill harness is permission ever given, and then 
only by a special decree from the emperor, 
for the procession to make a progress through 
the principal streets of the city where he 
died. 

At the TsHng ming festival, as on most high 
days and holidays, the superstition connected 
with the willow is brought prominently for- 
ward. Bunches of willow branches are used for 
sweeping tlie tombs, and other branches are 
hung at the eaves of houses or over the door- 
ways. Women wear sprigs of it in their liair, 
"to keep their eyes clear and to ward of blind- 
ness." These customs plainly point to the com- 
mon belief, that the Avillow possesses power 
over demons, and can drive them off or raise 
them, as the occasion demands. Thus, at a 
wedding, fruits are handed to the bride and 
bridegroom on willow plates ; and the spiritualist 
mediums make use of images carved out of 
willow wood, to communicate with the spirit 
world. Of the buncli of willow branches hung 
at the eaves of houses, a more rational ex- 
planation is sometimes offered. It is said 
that they are placed there to welcome and 



Mothering Sunday. 359 

attract the swallows which first arrive at about 
that time. One custom practised by the Chi- 
nese at TsHng ming finds a parallel in the 
custom, which is followed in countrj^ districts 
in England, at nearly the same time of the 
year. While English girls and women are ob- 
serving the time-honored institution of " Mother- 
ing Sunday,"* Chinese young married women 
" return for rest " to their mother's roof. 

If it were not that Buddha's birthday is 
commemorated during the fourth month, no 
distinctive festivals would mark that period. 
As it is, the rites are confined to Buddhists, 
and more especially to the confraternities of 
priests and monks. On the eighth, the day on 
which it is said that Buddha was taken from 
the side of his mother, the ceremony of " bath- 
ing Buddha " is performed. A small image of 
the god is placed in a vessel, partly filled 
with water, in each temple devoted to his 
worship, and on its head devotees are expected 
to poui a handfid of copper cash, and several 
ladles of the surrounding water. These acts 
are accompanied by adoration and prayer, and 



*This name is derived from the time-honored English custom of going to visit 
parents on Mid-Lent Sunday. 



360 The Chinese Year, 

at least have the effect of adding to the 
revenues of the temples. Oji the same day 
novitiates are admitted to the priesthood, and, 
as a sign of their new office, submit to have 
their heads burnt in the prescribed manner. 
Dried leaves of the artemisia are rolled up 
into small balls, and placed on the head on the 
places to be burnt. The balls are then ignited, 
and the fire buins away the skin. This cere- 
mony having been performed, the presiding 
priest gives the new brother his credentials as 
a member of the priesthood, and from that 
time forth he enjoys immunity from punishment 
for past offences against the law, should he 
have committed any, and all the privileges and 
perquisites of his order. 

The fifth month opens with the festival, 
called by the Chinese, King^ or " Cautious 
searching," which is known among foreigners 
as the dragon-boat festival. On the fifth of 
that month, in the 3"ear 298 B. c, a faithful 
minister, of the State of Tsoo, named Kiu Yuen, 
drowned himself in the Me-lo river, an affluent 
of the Yang-tsze-keang, to avoid witnessing the 
disasters which he saw were coming upon his 
country, and which the fatuity of his sovereign. 



Dragon-Boat Festival. 361 

Hwai wang, rendered him powerless to prevent. 
By the people, his death was regarded as a 
national calamity, especially as the misfortunes 
which he had predicted befell the state in 
rapid succes:?ion. With pious zeal, the inhabit- 
ants near the spot where he plunged into the 
Me-lo offered sacrifices to his manes^ while 
boatmen traversed the river in search of his 
body. With that respect for virtue and rever- 
ence for tradition which characterizes the Chi- 
Dese, the anniversary of his death has since 
been strictly observed throughout the empire. 
On the day in question, on most rivers, espe- 
cially in the neighborhood of large towns, boat- 
men traverse the rivers backwards and forwards, 
as though in the act of searching, in long 
boats which, from their shape, are called dragon- 
boats. Each boat holds about twenty rowers, 
who regulate the speed of their stroke by the 
beat of a drum placed in the centre. At the 
bow stands a man waving a flag, who is sup- 
posed to be on the lookout for the bod}' of 
Kiu Yuen, and throughout its length the bout 
is decorated with flags. No doubt, at first, 
the progress of the boats was merely a pro- 
cession; but before long the presence of num- 



362 The Chinese Year, 

bers, and the desire to excel, which is instinc- 
tive everywhere, caused it gradually to develop 
into a series of races. At the present time a 
keen rivalry exists between the owners of the 
several boats in a district, more especially 
when they are the property of different clans, 
and intense interest is excited in the results 
of the races. At first starting the drum is 
beaten to a slow and regular beat, but as the 
men warm to their work the beat becomes 
faster, and with an accompaniment of clashing 
gongs, deafening shouts, and waving flags, the 
men, with their short paddles, send the boats 
along at a great rate. Not unfrequently dis- 
putes, arising out of the contest, end in tights, 
in preparation for which sticks and stones, 
as well as gongs and flags, are shipped before 
starting. 

In cities remote from large rivers, all obvi- 
ous reference to the origin of the observance 
has, speaking generally, disappeared, and the 
racing alone remains. At Peking, for example, 
the day is celebrated by horse and cart races, 
which are held in an open space. in the outer 
city. Throughout the empire the day is kept 
as a holiday, and after midday all shops and 



Summer Weather and Insects, 



all places of business are, as a rule, closed. 

On this day falls also the beginning of sum- 
mer, when it is necessary to take precautions 
against the evil influences which accompany the 
supposed change of weather, and the insects 
which begin to abound at this season. Yellow 
charm papers, pasted on the doorposts and 
bedsteads, and bunches of garlic and other 
herbs hung at the front-doors of houses, are 
believed to be efficacious in accomplishing the 
first object ; and the sulphurous smoke from a 
fire-cracker composed of pungent materials, is 
said, and probably with good reason, to be a 
complete antidote against the plague of obnox- 
ious insects. 

The sixth month, like the fourth, is with- 
out any marked observance of interest ; but 
with the beginning of autumn, in the seventh 
month, superstition again proclaims itself in the 
customs of the people. On the seventh day is 
commemorated a curious legend. A certain 
star, called hy the Chinese " the spinning 
damsel," and which is identified as a Lyra in 
our system, was, many centuries ago, sent on 
a mission to earth. There she fell in love with 
a cowherd, whom she ultimately married. Be- 



364 The Chinese Year, 

fore long, however, she was recalled to her 
place in the heavens, and on her way thither 
her grief at leaving her . husband found vent 
in bitter tears, which fell upon the earth as 
rain. Uuable to bear his separation from liis 
wife, the cowherd died of grief, and as a re- 
ward for his exemplary life was transformed 
into the star, B Aquila, separated only by the 
milk}^ way from his wife. Once a year, since 
that time, namely, on the seventh day of the 
seventh month, magpies form themselves into a 
bridge across the milky way, over which the 
spinning damsel passes to the cowherd. 

On the evening of this day Chinese women 
offer sacrifices, consisting of melons and fruits, 
to the spinning damsel, and pray that she 
will vouchsafe to them skill in needlework. 
They then go up to the upper story, if there 
be one, of the house, and thread seven needles 
with colored thread, by the light of the moon. 
If they succeed, it is understood as a favor- 
able omen from the goddess. Water drawn 
from wells on this evening is supposed to im- 
part clearness and purity to the complexion, 
and is consequently much used by the devotees 
of the spinning damsel. 



Feeding the Hungry Ghosts. 365 

That there is intimate communion between 
the dead and the living is a leading article 
in the Chinese creed, and at this time of the 
year a festival is held, wliich is known as that 
of "Feeding the hungry ghosts," which has 
for its object the clothing and feeding of the 
ghosts of those who have died b}" misadven- 
ture, or have perished friendless and alone, 
and who are therefore without those supplies 
for their comfort which are furnished to the 
more fortunate dead by surviving relatives at 
the festival of " visiting the tombs." On tliis 
occasion, as on that, paper money and clothes 
are offered up, and burned before the ancestral 
tablets, while the members of each family go 
through the service of the worship of the dead. 
Now, also, substantial viands are placed on 
the ancestral altar, to be transferred to the 
family dining-table as soon as the " hungry 
ghosts" have abstracted their share, in the 
shape of the immaterial essence. Meanwhile, 
at the Buddhist and Taouist temples a succes- 
sion of services are said for the repose of the 
destitute spirits, and of an evening large boats, 
brilliantly lighted, pass up and down the rivers, 
from which rice is thrown into the stream, co 



366 The Chinese Year- 

assuage the hunger of the ghosts. On board 
these vessels priests chant their liturgies, and 
offer up paper-money and clothes. The ghosts 
for whom this work of charity is performed, 
are divided into thirty-six classes, "and are 
represented like Titans in size, with mouths 
like needle's eyes." Their condition, like that 
of Pretas, is one of the six paths of transmi- 
gration, and their office is that of gaolers in 
hell. No doubt, in the rites observed on their 
behalf, there is a desire to propitiate spirits 
which might be troublesome if • hostilely in- 
clined, as well as a charitable wish to satisfy 
the wants of those who are deprived of the 
natural supply of comforts from dutiful de- 
scendants; but, in the main, the idea is a 
humane one, the very general observance of 
which reflects credit on the national kindli- 
ness, though at the expense of the national 
intelligence. 

Legend says that many centuries ago, on 
the fourteenth of the eighth month, a certain 
doctor was gathering medicinal herbs on a moun- 
tain-side, when he saw a youth take from a 
many-colored bag a bunch of herbs, which he 
dipped in dew, and with which he then 



Heaven's Cauterization. 367 

anointed his eyes. On being asked his reason 
for doing so, he explained that it was to keep 
his eyes bright. Having said this, he disap- 
peared, and the doctor returned, wondering at 
what he had seen and heard. The prescrip- 
tion thus communicated was regarded by the 
people as being something more than human, 
and ever since, on the anniversary of this day 
they anoint their eyes with dew applied with 
herbs kept in gayly-colored bags. On the same 
day children's heads are marked with red paint, 
known in superstitious language as " Heaven's 
cauterization," as a preventive against disease. 

On the next evening falls the festival of 
the moon, which is accompanied with a dis- 
play of illuminations second only in brilliancy 
to the Feast of Lanterns in the first month. 
Every house is lighted up, and the inhabitants 
crowd on to the upper verandas and roofs 
to gaze on the object of their adoration. At 
intervals they worship before the ancestral 
altars, and feast on cakes, some made round 
to imitate the moon, and others shaped after 
all sorts of fantastic designs, among which 
representations of pagodas find a prominent 
place. Remarking on this custom, Mr. Dennys 



368 The Chinese Year, 

says, " The moon, it is well known, represents 
the female principle in the Chinese cosmogony, 
and she is further supposed to be inhabited 
by a multitude of beautiful females; the cakes 
made in her honor are therefore veritable of- 
ferings to this Queen of the Heavens. Now, 
in a part of Lancashire, on the banks of the 
Ribble, there exists a precisely similar custom 
of making cakes in honor of the 'Queen of 
Heaven ' — a relic, in all probability, of the old 
heathen worship, which was the common fount 
of the two customs." 

The ninth month is fruitful in curious . ob- 
servances. It is the end of the autumn, and 
on the ninth occurs one of the Tsieh, or 
divisions of the year, upon which the Chinese 
lay such stress. At court, the emperor, on 
this da}'-, opens the hunting-season, and goes 
to cover dressed in white, driving white horses, 
and surrounded with white flags. If he follow 
the rules laid down for his guidance in the 
book of rites, his meals at this time will con- 
sist of a preparation of hemp and dog's flesh. 
By his subjects, the ninth is spent on the 
highest bit of ground or the loftiest roofs 
within their reach, and is employed in flyinp 




369 



24 



KITE FLYING. 



Wine and Kites. 371 

kites and drinking wine in which the petals 
of chrysanthemums have been soaked. The 
origin of this custom has to be sought for 
nearly a thousand years ago. Legend has it 
that a scholar named Joo Nan was suddenly 
warned by a heavenly messenger to betake 
himself with his family to a high mountain, 
to escape a calamity which was suddenly to 
overtake the district in which he lived. On 
the mountain-top he was bidden to wear a bag 
containing bits of dog-wood, and to drink 
wine in which the petals of chrysanthemums 
had been soaked, to ward off all evil influ- 
ences. These injunctions he obeyed to the 
letter, and was rewarded by escaping from an 
overwhelming catastrophe which destroyed his 
flocks and herds in the plains below. In 
memory of this signal deliverance, people on 
this day go up the mountains and hills in 
imitation of Joo Nan. The kite-flying, which 
is now invariably associated with these ex- 
peditions, finds no foundation in the original 
fable, and was very likely suggested by the 
combination of circumstances, a high elevation, 
and a fresh autumn breeze. The sight of men 
of all ages flying kites at this time of the year 



372 The Chinese Year. 

is one which is always astonishing to foreign- 
ers, who are accustomed to regard such amuse- 
ments as childish, and in this instance the 
apologists of the custom cannot even find a 
superstitious origin for it. The injunction 
given to Joo Nan to wear a bag containing 
pieces of dog-wood is now generally obeyed by 
Chinese women, who look on the charm as a 
sure safeguard against disease. 

The approacli of cold weather at the begin- 
ning of the tenth month suggests the neces- 
sity of providing for the dead suitable cover- 
ing for the coming winter, and the ancestral 
tombs again witness assemblies of survivors 
eager to pay their respects and to consider 
the comfort of the departed. On this occasion 
paper clothes are carried to the graves, and 
burnt before them, in the belief that through 
the fire they reach the dead. Food is 
also, as at the spring festival, offered up, and 
as a matter of fact is, as then, eaten by the 
sacrificers. 

On the first of the month, in some parts of 
the country, farmers set free their sheep and 
cattle. The origin of tliis custom seems to be 
unknown, and its perpetuation unintelligible. 



Ballet and Legerdemain, 873 

The twelfth of the month is a day of great 
festivity in the palace of the emperor. For 
days beforehand preparations are made for a 
great theatrical display, the results of which 
are that the court is kept amused '' from morn 
to dewy eve." First of all, the high officials 
of the palace present themselves before their 
imperial master disguised as birds and beasts, 
and dance and pose in a somewhat monoton- 
ous ballet. This custom probably owes its ex- 
istence to the historical references to the tip- 
pearance at court of ambassadors of the Lung 
(Dragon), Fung (Phoenix), and other tribes of 
aboriginal China, whose names have been 
treated by historians and commentators as though 
they actually stood for the beasts and birds 
they happen to signify. In succession to these 
disguised mandarins come conjurors, dancers, and 
acrobats, whose skill is wonderful, and who, if 
native records are to be trusted, realize to the 
full the extraordinary accounts current of the 
legerdemain and activit}^ of Eastern magicians. 
The winter solstice, whicli generally falls in 
the eleventh month, is one of the most noted 
sacrificial periods of the year. The night be- 
fore the shortest day the emperor is supposed 



374 The Chinese Year, 

to spend in watching and meditation at '' the 
Hall of Fasting," adjoining the sacrificial altar 
known as the Yuen Mu, or " Round mound," 
outside the southern gate of the capital. The 
altar, which is of marble, is built in three 
terraces, and is ascended by twenty-seven steps. 
The summit is paved with marble stones ar- 
ranged in nine concentric circles, in the centre 
of which is a round stone upon which the 
emperor kneels; "and thus," as is remarked 
by Doctor Edkins in his account of Peking, 
"he is surrounded first by the circles of the 
terraces and their enclosing walls, and then by 
the circle of the horizon. He thus seems to 
himself and his court to be in the centre of 
the universe . . . Round him, on the pave- 
ment, are the nine circles of as many heavens, 
consisting of nine stones, then eighteen, then 
twenty-seven, and so on in successive multi- 
ples of nine, till the square of nine, the 
favorite number of Chinese philosophy, is 
reached in the uttermost circle of eighty-one 
stones." 

Very early on the solstitial morning, the 
emperor, who on the previous day has examined 
the sacrificial offerings, consisting of a bullock. 



The Flesh of Hapjnness. 375 

a sheep, a pig, and other animals, puts on his 
sacrificial robes, and, attended by his court, 
ascends to the second terrace of the altar, 
where he kneels in prayer. This is a signal 
for setting fire to the burnt sacrifice in honor 
of Shang-te, and for the musicians to breathe 
appropriate music. The emperor presently as- 
cends to the summit, and there again kneels, 
and burns incense to Shang-te and his ancestors. 
While performing these acts of adoration he 
offers up " bundles of silk, jade-cups, and other 
gifts." A prayer composed for the occasion is 
next read by an official, to which the emperor 
listens on his knees, and emphasizes by bowing 
three times to the ground. " At this point," 
says Doctor Edkins, " certain officers bring for- 
ward what is called the 'flesh of happiness' 
to the front of the tablet of Shang-te, and 
hold it up. The emperor then goes to the spot 
for drinking the ' cup of happiness ' and receiv- 
ing the 'flesh of happiness,' and prostrates himself 
three times, receiving the cup and flesh kneeling." 
On his return to his palace the emperor re- 
ceives in audience all the high officials of his 
court, who congratulate him on their knees on 
the return of the winter solstice, and express the 



376 The Chinese Year. 

wish which has greeted the ears of Oriental 
sovereigns through all time, that he may live 
for ever. In the provinces a repetition of the 
ceremonial which accompanies the arrival of 
spring takes place. The mandarins, while it is 
yet dark, assemble at the local imperial tem- 
ples, and there in solemn silence, except for the 
words of command given by the master of 
ceremonies, bow the knee and strike their 
foreheads on the ground before the empty 
throne of the emperor. 

By the people the day is observed in sacri- 
ficing to their ancestors. Offerings of cooked 
meat, fish, etc., are presented before the ances- 
tral tablets in each house, and each member 
of the household in order of seniority bows to 
the ground in adoration and as an expression 
of thanks to his progenitors for the return of 
the winter solstice. The offerings having played 
tlieir part on the altar, are then feasted upon 
by the household, and the rest of the day is 
given up to merry-making. On this day, also, 
numerous minute domestic observances are fol- 
lowed ; among others, the opportunity is taken 
to pickle ducks' eggs for consumption in the 
following year. 



Thanksgiving Day, 377 

The eighth day of the last month in the year 
is set apart as a solemn thanksgiving day for 
the mercies received during the year. From 

time immemorial it has been customary for the 
emperor to proceed in state to an altar to 
the south of the capital, and there to offer 
up sacrifices and thanksgivings for the mercies 
vouchsafed to the empire. An ancient pra3^er 
used on these occasions ran thus : " May the earth 
remaiu at rest, and the rivers return to their 
beds. May the myriad insects forget to be 
harmful, and trees and shrubs grow only in 
waste places." Especial honor used at the same 
time to be paid to cats for destroying field- 
mice, and tigers for keeping down wild boars. 
These passages have dropped out of the mod- 
ern observance, but with equal exactitude the 
emperor now as then testifies his gratitude to 
Heaven and earth for the past, and beseeches 
their protection and favor for the time to come. 
Following the example thus set them, the 
people throughout the empire offer sacrifices 
and thanksgivings to the gods of the hearth 
and before the ancestral tablets: The offerings 
having been arranged on the family altar, ac- 
companied with burning incense, the head of 



378 The Chinese Year. 

the family prostrates himself before it, and re- 
turns thanks in the name of the household, 
for the food, clothing, and mercies of the past 
year. At this time also, in preparation for the 
new year, rites are performed for exorcizing 
evil influences. Processions march through the 
streets of the cities formed of the townspeople, 
divided into companies, and dressed and painted 
in all kinds of grotesque disguises. The dis- 
tortions of form and feature thus produced, 
coupled with the beatings of drums, the clash- 
ing of gongs, and the shouts of the people, 
are supposed to frighten away evil demons. 
By strict right the processions pass through 
and through the yamuns or official residences 
to clear them of all evil, and for the rest it is 
but considered necessary to parade the streets. 
In some places a paper boat is carried in the 
procession, which, at the end of the day, is 
taken down to the river's edge, and launched, 
burning, on the water, the idea being that it 
bears away the malign influences which have 
been collected in it while passing through the 
streets. Having thus got rid of the existing 
evil spirits, care is taken to prevent their re- 
turn by pasting up peach-charms over the door-. 



Shaving Heads and boring Ears. 379 

ways of the houses. The peach and willow- 
trees are supposed to exercise control over 
spirits, and it is a common thing, in cases of 
illness which are believed to be due to pos- 
session by the Devil, to have the bed and 
furniture of the sick-room beaten with bunches 
of peach and willow-twigs, in order to drive 
out the arch-tiend. The peach-charms are but 
pieces of paper cut into the shape of peach- 
leaves, and bearing on them certain characters 
designed to protect the houses where they ap- 
pear. 

The eighth day of the last month, being the 
day upon which Buddha " perfected his doc- 
trine," is chosen as a fortunate one on which 
to shave the heads of children and to bore 
the ears of women. What connection this last 
act can have with the saintship of Sakya 
muni it is difficult to say, unless it be that 
the infliction of pain on members of the sex 
which assailed him so pertinaciously with tempt- 
ation, may be considered pleasing to the saint. 

On the twentieth of the month the ceremony 
of sealing up the seals of all the offices is 
performed. Unlike the opposite rite, when in 
the first month the seals are opened, those of 



380 The Chinese Year, 

the highest officials are sealed up first. Before 
daylight all officials inferior to the highest, in 
each city, go to the yamun of their chief, 
who, dressed in full uniform, prostrates him- 
self before the seal which stands surrounded 
with incense on the official table. The senior 
secretary next reverently lifts the seal with 
both hands, and, kneeling before his master, 
wishes him long life and promotion. The seal 
is then deposited in a box, which is carefully 
sealed up, and the ceremony is brought to a 
close. This done, the yamun of the next high- 
est dignitary is visited by all his subordinates, 
who are called upon to witness the same for- 
malitj^, and thus with an ever-decreasing crowd 
the yamuns of every official are visited, until 
that of the lowest is reached. In each case 
before the seal is finally locked up several 
impressions are taken, to be used in cases of 
emergency, should such arise, during the closed 
month. 

Towards the end of the month, generally on 
the twenty-third, the festival in honor of the 
kitchen-gods is celebrated. It is the popular 
belief tliat these deities ascend to heaven on 
this day, to report to the supreme ruler on 



The Kltehen-gods' Festival. 381 

the conduct of the households over which they 
have presided, and the desire is equally gen- 
eral to propitiate them on the eve of their de- 
parture. To tliis intent, sacrificial meats, fruits 
and wine are placed on a table in the kitchen, 
before a picture of the particular deity to be 
worshipped, and are offered up to him with 
prayer and thanksgiving. Each member of the 
family prostrates himself before the god, while 
crackers are exploded to frighten of all evil- 
disposed spirits. The ceremony over, the pic- 
ture which has done duty during the past 
year is torn down and burnt, together with 
the paper money presented to the god, and the 
toy-horse which is provided to carry him hea- 
venwards. 

On the following evening a new picture of 
the deity is pasted up in the kitchen, and a 
congratulatory sacrifice of vegetables is offered 
up to him. This, it is thought, will secure his 
good will and favorable countenance towards 
tlie household for the coming year. 

But what year? How do the Chinese des- 
ignate and compute their years? Having no 
fixed starting-point of chronologj", as among 
ourselves, they are obliged to point to the in- 



382 The Chinese Year. 

dividual years by a kind of circumlocution. 
To each emperor is given a Neen-hao^ or title, 
or sometimes two or three in succession, for his 
reign, which may be considered in the light 
of adopted names, much as a pope, on attain- 
ing to the pontificate, assumes a title other 
than his patronymic. These Neen-hao are per- 
fectly known by every one making any pre- 
tence to education, and it is sufficient there- 
fore to say that such an event occurred in 
such and such a year, of such and such a 
Neen-hao^ to enable every Chinaman approxi- 
mately to arrive at the date which is referred 
to. For instance, the year (1882) was the 
seventh year of the reign of Kw^ang-sii, and 
is known to every Chinamen as Kwang-sii ts'ih 
neen. 

Another mode of computing the years is by 
reckoning by sexagenary cj^cles. This system 
was, according to native historians, introduced 
by the Emperor Hwang-te in the sixty-first 
year of his reign (2637 B. c), which was the 
first 3^ear of the first cycle, and the year 
(1881) was therefore the eighteentli of the 
seventy -sixth cycle. In order to. express the 
years of the cycle in writing, the plan was 



Sexagenary Cycles. 383 

adopted of taking two sets of twelve and 
ten characters respectively, and combining them 
in succession, by means of 'which process the 
last two characters of the two series are com- 
bined to indicate the last year of the cycle. 
This will be made plain by the following table : 



'he ten characters, 


or celes- 


The twelve characters, o 


tial stems. 




restrial branches. 


1. Keah. 


6. 


Ke. 


1. Tsze. 


7. Woo. 


2. Yueh. 


7. 


Kang. 


2. Ch'ow. 


8. Wei. 


3. Ping. 


8. 


Sin. 


3. Yin. 


9. Sliin. 


4. Ting. 


9. 


Jin 


4. Mao. 


10. Yew. 


5. Woo. 


10. 


Kwei. 


5. Shin. 


11. Suh. 


• . . 






6. Sze. 


12. Hal. 



The first year of the cycle would therefore 
be Keah tsze^ the second Yueh ch^ow, and so 
on to the tenth, Kwei yew. But the eleventh 
would be Keah suh^ the twelfth Yueh hai, 
the thirteenth, Fing tsze, the fourteenth Ting 
cKgiv^ the fifteenth Wu yin^ the sixteenth Ke 
mao^ the seventeenth Kang shin^ the eighteenth 
Sin sze^ and so on until we come to the 
sixtieth, which is Kwei hai. These designations 
refer only to the years in each cycle, and in 
no sort of wav point to which cycle they be- 
long. To obviate this difficulty recourse is 



884 The Chinese Year, 

again had to the Neen-hao^ and any given 
year is fixed by its cyclical name preceded 
by the Neen-hao during which it occurred. 
As stated above Kvvang-sii is the present Neen- 
hao^ and, 1881 being the eighteenth year of 
the cycle, it would be described as Kwang- 
sit Sin-sze-neen, or the Sin sze (eighteenth) 
year which occurred during the reign of Kwang- 
sii. Within modern times it has once happened 
that an emperor has reigned over sixty years. 
K'ang-lie, who sat on the throne from 1662 
to 1723 was this fortunate sovereign. He be- 
gan his reign in the cyclical year Jin yin 
(the thirty-ninth), and ruled through the whole 
of the cycle, until, in 1722, the same year 
{Jin yin) recurred. Both these years would 
therefore be, in the natural order of things, 
E''ang-he Jin yin neen. But, as it was nec- 
essary that some distinction should be made 
between them in order to avoid confusion, the 
character yew, meaning " repeated," or " for 
the second time," was prefixed to the C3^clical 
characters, and 1722 was consequently known 
as K^any-he Yew Jin yin neen, the " Jin ^ yin 
year which occurred for the second time during 
the reign of K'ang-lie." 



• Long Hours. 385 

The first thirty, or twenty-nine, as the case 
may be, of same cyclical characters are used 
to denote the days of the month, and the 
twelve divisions of the day are indicated by 
the twelve "terrestrial branches." The European 
hour is unknown in Cliina, and its place is 
taken by a period which corresponds to one 
hundred and twenty minutes. In speaking of 
these periods, however, the practice, which was 
originally introduced into China by the Mon- 
gols, is commonly adopted, of substituting for 
the twelve stems the names of the twelve 
animals which are held to be symbolical of 
them. Thus the first period, that between 
eleven p. m. and one A. M., is known as the 
Rat, the second as the Ox, the third as the 
Tiger, the fourth as the Hare, the fifth as 
the Dragon, the sixth as the Serpent, the 
seventh as the Horse, the eighth as the Sheep, 
the ninth as the Monkey, the tenth as the 
Cock, the eleventh as the Dog, and the twelfth 
as the Boar. The night is divided into five 
watches, each of two hours' duration, beginning 
with the period of the Dog, seven to nine 
p. M., and ending with that of the Tiger, 

three to five a. m. 
25 



CHAPTER XV. 



SUPERSTITIONS. 




OUPERSTITIOUS observ- 
ances are always found exist- 
ing among a people in in- 
verse ratio to the extent of 
their scientific knowledge. 
They are often, in fact, 
based on crude observation 
of the processes of nature, 
or more commonly upon ac- 
cidental coincidences. For 
example, the common super- 
stition in England that it is unlucky to see 
magpies flj^ing singly in springtime, is founded 
on the fact that in storm}^ or cold weather 
one bird remains in the nest to keep the eggs 
warm, while the other goes in search of food, 
and the omen, therefore, foretells rain and 
storms. In the same way the appearance of 



Broom-tailed tStars. 387 

sea-gulls inland, which is rightly interpreted 
to mean that there is rough weather at sea, is 
attributed to their having been driven land- 
ways by the force of the wind ; whereas the 
true explanation is, that during storms fish 
leave the surface of the water and go deeper, 
and the gulls, being thus deprived of their na- 
tural food, seek on shore to supply its place 
with worms and grub. 

There are, however, a host of superstitions, 
the results of accidental coincidences, which 
do not yield to any explanation from natural 
causes. Some of them have been common all 
over the world. One of the most nearly uni- 
versal of these is the belief in the malign influ- 
ences of comets. During the Middle Ages, and 
even later, these "broom-tailed stars" were re- 
garded in Europe as foretelling war and disaster, 
and especially calamities to the ruling houses. 
Throughout the East the same belief prevails, 
and in China it is firmly held by all classes 
of the community. It is curious to notice, and 
cannot be denied, that occasionally circum- 
stances seem to have justified its existence. 
At the same time, it is a belief which not 
unfrequently finds its own fulfilment by sug- 



388 Superstitions. 

gesting to rebellious and unruly spirits the 
idea that the time is favorable for the prose- 
cution of seditious designs. No such explana- 
tion is, however, to be found for the circum- 
stances (which were regarded by the Chinese 
as cause and effect) of the appearance of the 
comet of 1858, and the totally unexpected out- 
break of hostilities between China and the 
allied forces of England and France in that 
year, or three years later, of the appearance of 
another comet, and the immediate death from 
illness of the emperor, who up to that time 
had been in good health. 

The same superstition exists with regard to 
the eclipses of the sun and moon ; and, on 
rare occasions, when expected eclipses have 
either not taken place, or have been invisible 
in China, the circumstance has been regarded 
as a direct intervention of Heaven in favor of 
the emperor, its sense of whose virtue it thus 
signalizes. The popular notion with regard to 
an eclipse is that some monster is attacking, 
and unless prevented, will devour the sun 
or moon as the case may be. The danger, 
therefore, to the empire is great, and the in- 
tervention of every official in the country is 




A STREET FORTUNE-TELLER, 



389 



Eclipses and Noises. 391 

called for to save the threatened luminary. 
Some months before the expected eclipse, the 
Board of Astronomers notifies the exact date 
of its appearance to the officials of the Board 
of Rites, who in turn announce its approach 
to the viceroys and governors of the provinces. 
These transmit the message to all their sub- 
ordinates, so that, when the time arrives, an 
army of mandarins stands prepared to avert 
the disaster. Their precedure is simple, and as 
neither the sun nor moon have ever been de- 
voured, it is regarded as efficacious. At the 
appointed time, the mandarins assemble at the 
yamun of the senior official, and arrange them- 
selves before an altar set up in the court- 
yard, on which incense is burning. At a 
given signal they fall down on their knees 
and perform the Ko-t'ow, after which the at- 
tendants beat drums and gongs, to frighten 
away the oppressive monster, while priests 
move in a procession round the altar chanting 
prayers and formulas. To assist the mandarins 
in their patriotic efforts, the people mount to 
the roofs of their houses, and add to the din 
which issues from the yamuns, by beating every- 
thing capable of emitting resounding noises, 



B92 Superstitions. 

The different phases of the planets are watched 
with equal solicitude, and portents are derived 
from every real or imaginary chance in their 
relative positions and colors. 

In an astrological sense Mars symbolizes fire 
and rules the summer season. It is the author 
of punishments, and is the producer of sudden 
confusion. Saturn represents earth, and, when 
it meets Jupiter in the same astrological 
"house," it portends good fortune to the em- 
pire. If, however, Saturn, with the four other 
planets, should appear white and round, mourn- 
ing and drought are in store for the country; 
if red, disturbances are to be expected, and 
troops will take the field; if green, floods are 
to be looked for; if black, sickness and death 
will spread over the land ; and if yellow, a 
time of prosperit}^ is at hand. Venus repre- 
sents gold, and is deemed a complacent planet; 
but, while in many of its phases it foretells 
peace and plent}^ it at other times presages the 
movements of troops, and the disruption of 
the empire. If it at first looms large, and 
afterwards small, the national forces will be 
wenk, and if contrarywise, they will be strong. 
If it appear large and extended, trouble will 



Innumerable Portents. 393 

fall upon princes and nobles, and military ex- 
peditions, then undertaken, will begin fortunately 
and end with disaster; but, if it should ap- 
pear compact and small, campaigns which be- 
gin in misfortune will end successfully. 

Mercury symbolizes water, and when, seem- 
ingly, of a white color, it forecasts drought ; 
when yellow, the crops will be scorched up ; 
when red, soldiers will arise ; and when black, 
floods are at hand. If it appear large and 
white in the East, troops beyond the frontier 
will disperse ; if red, the middle kingdom will be 
victorious ; in certain conjunctions with Venus, 
it portends great battles in which strangers 
will be victorious ; and if it approaches Venus, 
several tens of thousands of men will meet 
in strife, and the men and ministers of the 
ruler will die. 

Such are some of the innumerable portents 
which are based on the movements and ap- 
pearances of the planets. Not content with 
peering into the future lying before the na- 
tion and its rulers, Chinese astrologers bus}^ 
themselves with the fortunes of individuals, 
and the Imperial Board of Astronomers so 
far gives its sanction to this inq^uisitorial astro- 



394 Superstitions. 

logy as to publish annually an almanac, in 
which are given the lucky and unlucky days 
throughout the year, and the kind of business 
which ma}^ be undertaken with advantage on 
those days which are described as kill, or 
lucky. For instance, the first day of the 
first month is appropriate for sacrificing, be- 
ginning to learn, and bathing. The second is 
an unlucky day, and nothing of importance 
should be done upon it. The third, on the 
other hand, is suitable for meeting friends, 
marrying, taking a concubine, asking names, 
cutting out clothes, putting up piUars, trading, 
opening granaries, and burying. The fourlli is 
lucky for shaving the head, sending for doc- 
tors, taking medicine, receiving appointments, 
entering on official posts, starting on journeys, 
etc. As certain doings are appropriate to cer- 
tain lucky days, so otlier specified undertak- 
ing should on no account be begun on such 
days wliich ma}^ not be otherwise unlucky. 
The prognostics for each day are carefullj^ set 
out, and are eagerl}^ studied b}^ tlie educated 
among the people. Those who have not this 
invaluable source of information read}^ at hand 
have recourse to the professional fortune-tell- 



Fortune-telling, 395 

ers, of whom there is no lack in every city 
in the empire. Some of these mystery-men 
occupy shops, but a great majority of them 
are possessed of only a small portable table, 
and the usual stock-in-trade of their calling, 
and with these they daily establish themselves 
in the outer courtyards of much-frequented 
temples, or by the sides of crowded throughfares. 
Their modes of procedure are various. The 
most ancient and approved methods of divin- 
ing the future, and reading the will of the 
gods, are b}' means of the Kivei^ or Tortoise, 
the She, or Millfoil, and the She, or a kind 
of Mayweed. The questions put through the 
instrumentality of these media are as multi- 
farious as are the wants of man. Whether 
the inquirer should embark in trade or no, 
whether he will be able to catch the thieves who 
have left him destitute, whether he should fol- 
low the bent of his wishes in some matter or 
not, whether he sliould take office, whether he 
should live in his father's house, whether his mat- 
rimonial project will turn out favorably or the 
reverse, whether he will gather in good crops 
or not, whether disease will be rife, whether 
war be at hand, whether he of whom he has 



396 Superstitions, 

requested an interview will grant it, whether 
he will be able to find that which is lost, 
whether he will be successful in hunting and 
fishing, whether he will encounter thieves on 
the journey he is about to undertake, these 
and a host of other questions, when incense 
has been duly burnt, and pra3^ers offered to 
the god, find their answers in the attitude of 
the divining-tortoise. The direction of the ani- 
mal's gaze, the extent to which he stretches 
his neck, the attitudes which he assumes with 
his feet and toes, and other indications of the 
same kind, serve to guide the fortune-teller to 
sure and ready answers to the inquiries put 
him. 

No less ancient is the system of inquiring 
into the future by means of stalks of Milfoil. 
This process is complicated by an application 
of the lots to the diagrams of Fuh-he, in con- 
nection with which, by observing the various 
combinations of the whole and parts of lines 
which they form when cast from the hand, the 
diviner finds as certain a response as in the 
attitude of the tortoise. The Mayweed is used 
in the same way, but has especial efficacy 
attaching to it as coming from the grave of 



Fortune-tellers" Modes. 397 

Confucius. The stalks from the shrubs grow- 
ing around the tomb of the sage are gathered 
and made up into parcels of sixty-four, the 
number of Fuli-he's diagrams, and are sold for 
divinatory purposes. 

In modern times other and readier sys- 
tems have come into vogue, and the proba- 
bility is that an itinerant fortune-teller would 
be sorely perplexed if called upon to interpret 
the movements of a tortoise. He finds it 
easier to dissect written characters, and to in- 
fer from their component parts the future of 
his . client. Those who affect this particular 
branch of the profession require only, as their 
stock-in-trade, a piece of cloth spread on the 
the ground, on which they arrange pencil, ink, 
and paper, and a small box, in which are 
placed a number of bits of folded paper, each 
containing a single written character. The 
client, after paying the necessary fee, is required 
to draw out one of these pieces of paper. This 
the fortune-teller unfolds, and reads the char- 
acter contained in it, which he proceeds to 
resolve into its component parts. The char- 
acter Tih^ " to obtain," is generally one of 
those which finds its place in the box. 



398 Superstitions. 

This, the fortune-teller points out, is composed 
of " two men walking," " the sun," and " an 
inch." From the first he assures his customer 
that he will agree well with his fellows, and 
will mate with a congenial wife. The sun is 
life and light bringing; his lot will therefore 
be to live to a bright old age ; and wliereas 
the character for "inch" is almost identical 
with that meaning "talented," a brilliant future 
lies before him, whether he direct his efforts 
to acquiring literary fame, or to gaining wealth 
by mercantile enterprise. In this kind of rough 
and ready dissection of characters considerable 
skill, gained by constant practice, is shown by 
the learned diviner, who enlarges with much 
fluency on the meaning of the several parts, 
and on the interpretations which, in accordance 
with the rules of his art, are to be placed 
upon them. 

Another curious way of giving oracular re- 
sponses to inquirers after knowledge of futurity 
is by means of a bird, which is trained to 
pick out at random two of sixty-four cards 
which are laid before it. On each card is 
drawn either a god, a beast, a bird, or a 
man, and on the reverse is written a stanza 



Birds and Cards. 399 

of poetry. When all the cards have been 
spread on a table, the bird is let out of his 
cage, and forthwith picks up two cards, one 
after the other, and presents them to his 
master, who, after studying the pictures and 
the poetry, deduces from them an answer to 
the inquiry laid before him. 

To another class of fortune-tellers the in- 
quirer's own person supplies the materials from 
which his horoscope is cast. Not only are the 
face and head, as among ourselves, studied to 
afford answers as to the mental capacity and 
leading characteristics of the inquirer, but 
from the features of the whole body are de- 
duced symptoms of the destiny of the indi- 
vidual, at well as the nature of his disposition. 
Masters of this art proclaim their profession to 
passers-by b}^ a sign bearing representations of 
the human countenance, which may be seen 
suspended over stalls in the by-ways of cities, 
as well as outside shops. Rooks for their 
guidance are numerous, and are minute in their 
details. The following gleanings have been 
gathered from one of the best-known native 
works on this curious subject: 

The face of a man favored by fortune should 



400 Superstitions. 

be long and square; but for the man with a face 
pointed at each end like a date-stone, povert}^ 
is in store. High cheek bones are a sign of 
a cruel disposition, and a matron so distin- 
guished is likely to prove a husband-kilHng 
wife. A broad chin belongs to a man born to 
wealth, and a pointed chin to a man whose 
lot it is to be poor. A man whose jawbone 
is so wide as to be seen from behind the 
ears, has a heart full of poison. The possessor 
of a high forehead will be held in esteem, and 
will live to old age ; but he whose nose is 
long is a man devoid of a fixed purpose. If 
you cannot see the ears of a man when meet- 
ing him face to face, ask who he is, for he is a 
somebody. If you cannot see the jawbones of a 
man under like circumstances, ask where he comes 
from, that you may avoid him. A large face and 
a small body are signs of happiness, and the re- 
verse is an omen of evil. He who has no ves- 
tige of hair on the bone above the neck is 
unrighteous, and will be destitute of relations. 
A man who does not move his head when 
walking, nor bend it when sitting, will come 
to poverty, and the possessor of a small head 
and long hair will leave no traces behind him. 



Rair^ Dimples and Eyebrows. 401 

A man with a narrow head and long hair will 
encounter difficulties, and death from starva- 
tion will overtake him whose hair grows long 
down to his ears. He whose hair turns white 
at an early age will not be fortunate ; but 
for him whose hair after turning white should 
recover its original color, great happiness is in 
store. 

History asserts that in antiquity no instance 
was known of a man with thick hair becom- 
ing prime-minister. Women with ultramarine- 
colored hair, like Buddha's, will marry men of 
distinction, and she who is the owner of glis- 
tening hair and a round and sleek face will 
enter the emperor's harem. People with dim- 
ples, both men and women, will marry more 
than once. Long hair in the eyebrows indicates 
long life, but thick and coarse eyebrows mean 
poverty; while a man who has the misfortune 
to have eyebrows which are unruly as well 
as coarse, is a man not to be spoken of. The 
possessor of eyebrows widely separated will be 
rich and prosperous ; but if they be thin and 
yellow in color, though he may be fortunate 
at first, misfortune is sure to overtake him. 

The eyes, we are told, are to the body 



402 Superstitions. 

what the sun and moon are to the earth. 
They are also the resting-places of wandering 
spirits. Long, deep, and brilliant eyes belong 
to men of consideration. A woman with much 
white in her eyes will probably murder her 
husband, and a boy so disfigured will be stupid. 
Noses are also very important features, and are 
distinguished as cows' noses, monkej^s' noses, 
dogs' noses, hawks' noses, etc. A man with a 
dog's nose will live long, and the marrow of 
the heart of the man will be evil whose nose 
is like a hawk's beak. The growth of hair 
inside the ear holds out a promise of lon- 
gevity, and ears broad and large belong to 
men of ability and wealth. 

The mouth is " the door of the heart, and 
out of it proceed blessings and cursings ; " 
its shape, therefore, is an important indicator 
of the individual. A man with a mouth 
shaped like a horned bow will enjoy the sweets 
of office, and he who is blessed with a broad 
and full mouth will attain to riches and honor. 
The possessor of an evenly-shaped mouth with 
lips which are neither thick nor thin, will have 
through life enough to eat and drink, but a 
man with a horse's mouth will die of starva- 



A Successful Physiognomist. 403 

tion. The mouse-like mouth is noted among 
those resembling the mouths of animals, pos- 
sessing peculiar traits. It belongs, we are 
told, to an envious and jealous man, and is 
the channel for vilifying words which scorch 
like fire. 

Such are some few of the points of feature 
particularly observed by Chinese physiogno- 
mists. The art is at the present day a very 
popular one, and though it cannot claim the 
sanction of antiquity which belongs to the 
practice of divination by the Tortoise and the 
Milfoil, it can boast of an ancestry which, 
to us, seems far-reaching. We read, for ex- 
ample, in history, that on one occasion, Kaou- 
tsoo, the first emperor of the Han Dynasty 
(b. c. 206-25 A. D.), when a young man, and be- 
fore he had attained to any eminence, was 
met on the road by a physiognomist, who fell 
on his knees before him and thus addressed 
him : — "I see by the expression of your fea- 
tures that you are destined to ascend the 
throne, and I offer you in anticipation the 
tribute of respect, that a subject owes to his 
sovereign. I have a daughter, the fairest and 
the wisest in the empire ; take her as your 



404 Superstitions. 

wife." The man's prescience was justified by 
the event, and had its reward. Kaou-tsoo rap- 
idly acquired farae, and, before long, the 
prophet's daughter was proclaimed empress.* 

Not content, however, with divining b}' the 
outward appearance and by external signs, the 
Chinese, like some among ourselves, resort to 
spiritualism, and in some cases invite the in- 
voked spirit to reveal the future by writing 
on a sand-covered table with a peach-stick. 
Great care is necessar}^ in the choice of this 
stick. It must be bent at the end, and must 
be cut from a branch pointing towards the 
East; but before cutting it off the following 
magic formula must be pronounced: ''Magic 
pencil most efficacious, daily possessing subtle 
strength, now I take thee to reveal clearly ev- 
erj^thing," and a mystic character must be cut 
on the tree. The stick having been secured, is 
then fastened into a cross-piece of wood, 
about six inches long. At the time of the 
seance two tables are prepared, on one of 
which are placed sacrificial wine, fruit, and 
confectioner}^ and on the other fine red sand 
is strewn. A petition is then written, ad- 

*This version of the story differs from that found in Chinese history. 



spiritualism. 



405 



dressed to the Great Royal Boddhisattwa, in- 
forming him that the sacrifices are prepared, 
and requesting that one of the great spirits 
wandering through the clouds should be sent 




WOMEN OF SOUTHERN CHINA. 



to the house of the writer. Tliis petition is 
burnt before the shrine of the deity, and the 
name and address of the petitioner is posted 



406 Superstitions. 

up outside the door for the information of 
the spirit. 

"Later iu the evening, two or three of the 
company assembled go to the door, burn there 
some gold paper and make an indefinite num- 
ber of bows and prostrations, receiving, as it 
were, the spirit on entering the house. Hav- 
ing conducted him into the hall, an arm-chair 
is moved to the table, whilst incense and can- 
dles are lighted. At the same time the medium 
approaches, the magic pencil resting on the 
palms of both hands, but so that the end of 
the twig touches the surface of the table 
strewn with sand. He places his outspread 
hands near the head of the table, and, ad- 
dress!, ig the spirit with becoming reverence, 
says, ' Great spirit, if you have arrived, be 
pleasef] to write the character " arrived " on 
this tfible.' Immediately the magic pencil be- 
gins to move, and the required character ap- 
pears l9gibly written on the sand, whereon all 
present request the spirit to sit on the large 
arm-chj«ir, whilst the deit3% which is supposed 
to havo conducted him thither, is likewise po- 
litely asked to sit down on another chair. 
The whole company now bow and prostrate 



A Magic Pencil Writes. 407 

themselves before the seats of botli spirits, and 
some pour out wine and burn gold paper. 
Then the medium approaclies again with the 
magic pencil on the palms of his hands, whilst 
all assembled say with one voice, ' Great spirit, 
what was your august surname, what your 
honorable name ; what offices were you in- 
vested with, and under what dynasty did you 
live on earth?' Immediately the magic pencil 
is seen moving, and answers to tliese ques- 
tions appear written in the sand. After this 
every one of the assembled may put a ques- 
tion one after the other, but each question is 
to be written on a slip of paper and burnt, 
together with some gold paper. As soon as 
each paper is fairly consumed by the fire, the 
magic pencil writes down the answer to it, 
generally in poetical form, and each sentence 
is followed by the character, 'I have done,' 
whereupon the pencil ceases to move. Then 
all assembled try to read the characters aloud. 
If they fail to decipher them, the pencil 
moves again and writes the same sentence 
more distinctly, until it is intelligible. As 
soon as one of the assembly succeeds in de- 
ciphering a sentence, the magic pencil moves 



408 Superstitions. 

again and writes on the sand the two char- 
acters, ' That's it.' When a sentence is fin- 
ished in this way, the sand on the table has 
to be smoothed again with a bamboo roller, 
and whilst this is being done, the whole com- 
pany address flattering speeches to the spirit, 
praising his poetical talents, to which the magic 
pencil replies by writing on the table the 
characters 'It's ridiculous.' If any one present 
behaves improperly, displaying a want of rev- 
erence, the spirit writes down some sentences 
containing a sharp rebuke- The motions of 
the pencil are quite extraordinary, and appar- 
ently not produced by the medium on whose 
bare palms its handle rests, and who merely 
follows the spontaneous movements of the 
magic pencil. In this way conversation is 
kept up without flagging until midnight (when 
the male principle begins to be active). Then 
the spirit breaks off the conversation, and, ad- 
dressing the whole company, writes on the ta- 
ble, ' Gentlemen, I am much obliged for j^our 
liberal presents, but now I must beg leave to 
depart.' To this all persons present reply, say« 
ing, 'Please, great spirit, stop a little longer,' 
but the spirit jots down, as if in a great 



Clairvoyance. 409 

hurry, the two characters, ' Exuse me, I am off.' 
Then all assembled say, ' If there was any 
want of respect or attention, great spirit, we 
beseech thee, forgive us this sin.' All walk 
then to the house-door burning gold paper, 
and there take leave of the spirit with many 
bows and prostrations."* 

Clairvoj^ance, mesmerism, and palmistry are 
commonly practised to discover that which is 
beyond the reach of man's ken, and, in fact, 
it may be said, that there is no magical art 
which is not known to the grossly supersti- 
tious people of China. 

*" Notes and Queries on China and Japan," 



CHAPTER XVI. 



FUNERAL RITES. 




IHE disposal of the dead has 
never been a vexed question 
with the Chinese. From time 
immemorial they have buried their 
dead out of their sight. The 
grave of the Emperor Fuh-he 
(B.C. 2852-2737) is still pointed 
out in Honan, and the last rest- 
ing-places of his successors are to 
"^'^^^^^~— this day recognized by tradition. 
What rites accompanied funerals in very prim- 
itive times we know not, but we have evi- 
dence in the She king and elsewhere that 
under the Chow Dynasty the practice of im- 
molating men at * the tombs of the departed 
great was at least occasionally carried out. 
The probability is that the Chinese adopted 
the custom from the aboriginal tribes ; but how- 

410 



Burying Alive, 411 

ever that may be, we read that at the funeral 
of Duke Ch'iiig, in the tenth century B. c, 
sixty-six persons were buried alive in his tomb, 
and even this number was exceeded on the 
occasion of the entombment of his brother, 
the Duke Muh, when one hundred and seventy- 
seven men were immolated at the grave. 

The custom never seems to have become a 
regular practice, but to have been conformed 
to at the caprice of the survivors. It is re- 
lated of Tsze-k'in, a disciple of Confucius, that 
on the death of his brother the widow and 
major-domo wished to bury some living per- 
sons with the deceased to serve him in the 
regions below. The matter being referred to 
Tsze-k'in, he proposed that the widow and 
steward should themselves be the victims of 
their own affectionate zeal, upon which the 
matter was dropped. After many centuries of 
disuse it was, according to Doctor S. Wells 
Williams, revived by Shun-che, the first em- 
peror of the present dynasty (a. d. 1644-1661), 
who ordered thirty persons to be immolated 
at the funeral of his empress. On a like oc- 
casion in the career of his son and successor, 
K'ang-he, four persons offered to sacrifice them- 



412 Funeral Rites, 

selves at the tomb of their imperial mistress. 
Bat K'aiig-he forbade it, and since then there 
has been no recurrence of the barbarous prac- 
tice. 

Of these living sacrifices the rituals make no 
mention ; but, according to them, it was the 
habit among the ancients to bury suits of 
clothes with the dead for their use in the 
other world, just as the American Indian's 
horse, canoe, and paddle are made to share 
his tomb, that they may serve him in the 
hunting-grounds of the blessed. An emperor's 
trousseau for the next state of existence was 
fixed at a hundred and thirty suits, a prince's 
at a hundred, a minister's at fift}^ and an 
official's at thirt}^ After the same style of 
gradation the mound on an emperor's tomb 
was raised thirty feet high, and surrounded 
b}^ fir-trees ; that of a prince was not to be 
more than fifteen feet, and surrounded by 
cypresses ; eight feet were allowed to a minis- 
ter, whose resting-place was guarded by L wan- 
trees (a kind of malvacfeous tree) ; an official 
lay under only half that height of earth, and 
under the shadow of ebony-trees ; while the 
people were forbidden to raise any mounds on 



Death and Mourning. 413 

their graves, and were allowed onl}' to plant 
willow-trees at their tombs. 

Even the very name of death — the great 
leveller — was not, and still is not, common 
to all. Emperors pdng^ or " fall as mountains 
fall"; princes hung^ or "demise"; ministers 
tsuh., or " come to an end " ; officials puh lull, 
"resign their dignities"; wdiile the common 
people sze., "die." When an emperor ''falls" 
the rituals prescribed that the mourners should 
live for seven days in huts outside the cen- 
tral door of the palace, weeping, morning and 
night. Courtly funerals are far too cumbersome 
in ceremonial and elaborate in detail to be de- 
scribed here, and even in the homes of the 
commoner people the rites are so numerous 
that it will be impossible to follow the mourn- 
ers through all the observances proper to the 
twenty-seven months of mourning. 

Great importance is attached by the Chinese 
to the presence of the whole family at the 
death-bed of the head of the household. His 
last words are eagerly listened to, and are 
written down as tliey are spoken, and when the 
silver cord is loosed and the golden bowl is 
broken a loud wail of lamentation is uttered 



414 Funeral Mites. 

by all present. On the approach of death the 
sufferer is carried into the principal hall where 
subsequently the corpse is washed and placed 
in the coffin. The water used for the wash- 
ing is " bought " from the nearest river. The 
purchaser, who is the chief mourner, goes in 
procession, supported by his friends and accom 
panied by musicians to the water's edge, whence 
he throws four cash, and sometimes also a live 
fish into the stream. The cash is payment for 
the water taken, and the fish is supposed to 
vouch for the receipt to tlie River King. 
The washing being over, the corpse is dressed 
in handsome silken robes, three being the 
number allowed by the sumptuary laws to 
officials of the first, second, or third rank, 
and two to officers of a lower grade. At the 
same time five small valuables, such as pearls, 
precious stones, bits of jade or gold, are placed 
in the mouth of the deceased. The encoffin- 
ment takes place on the third day after death, 
in the presence of the assembled family ; the 
women standing on the west side of the coffin 
and tlie men on the east. Great pains are 
taken to place the corpse exactly straight in 
the coffin, and this position is maintained by 



Parings of the Nails. 415 

filling in the empty spaces with clothes, and 
any object or objects which may have been 
personally prized by the deceased. This is in- 
telligible enough, but it is difficult to under- 
stand the obligation the survivors are under 
of placing the combings of his hair and the 
parings of his nails in the coffin. 

In some parts of the country two cash are 
put into the sleeve of the deceased, and are 
then shaken out, to test his satisfaction, or 
the reverse, at the arrangements made for his 
future comfort. If the cash fall with the same 
side upwards, it is taken as a sign of approval; 
if not, as a sign that something has been 
omitted. The coffin is placed in the centre of 
the hall, with the head facing towards the 
south, which in all houses of any pretensions, 
is in the direction of the door. On the right 
of the coffin the portrait of the deceased 
stands, and by it his clothes, washing-basin, 
towels, etc., are arranged as though he were 
yet alive. In contradiction, however, to this 
supposition, a sedan-chair is transmitted for his 
use to the other world by the act of burn- 
ing a paper effigy of one in the courtyard. 

On the third day, also, the mourners put 



416 Funeral Rites. 

on their mourning, which consists of coarse 
white sackcloth, white shoes, and a strip of 
sackcloth tied round the head. The eldest 
son supplements this attire by carrying a bam- 
boo staff, on which he leans as though over- 
come by sorrow when mourning for Lis father, 
and a t'ung (elaococca sinensis) staff when mourn- 
ing for his mother, the bamboo being symboli- 
cal of great grief, and the t'ung of less 
overwhelming sorrow. For a hundred days 
men allow their hair to grow, and leave their 
finger-nails uncut; and for the whole period 
of mourning for a parent — that is, twenty- 
seven months, the sons holding official appoint- 
ments resign their posts, and such as are 
candidates for examination refrain from com- 
peting.* All scenes of festivity are avoided. 
On the seventh day letters announcing the 
death are sent round to all relations and 
friends, who at jonce proceed to the house of 
mourning, bringing with them presents of money, 
incense, viands, or other things likely to be 
useful on such an occasion. On entering the 
house they put on mourning-clothes, and, ap- 
proaching the bier, make obeisance before it, 

* This is true of civil officers only. 



Wailing and Stamping. 417 

at the same time presenting incense. As at each 
and all the innumerable ceremonies, the family 
keep up an accompaniment of wailing and 
stamping with the feet while the visitors pay 
their respects. 

Every morning fresh water is poured into 
the basin placed by the coffin, and before be- 
ginning each meal rice and other viands are 
put within reach of the bier. On the same 
table also are placed smaller quantities of the 
same food to propitiate the " little devil " who 
is supposed to serve the dead man in the 
land of spirits. 

As the rites demand that the coffin should 
remain in the hall for forty-nine days (it is 
oftener kept very much longer above ground) 
it is necessary that it should be made both 
substantial and air-tight. The planks, which are 
cut from the hardest and most endurable trees, 
are from four to five inches thick, and are 
not only strongly and accurately mortised to- 
gether and caulked on the outside, but are 
cemented over on the inside. The coffins of 
men of high rank are covered with coatings 
of red lacquer, while black lacquer is pre- 
scribed for mandarins of the lower grades, and 
27 



418 Funeral Rites, 

to the people, lacquer of any kind is forbid- 
den. 

The notions that Chinamen entertain con- 
cerning the future life, rob death of half its 
terrors, and lead them to regard their funeral 
ceremonies, and the due performance of the 
proper rites by their descendants, as the chief 
factors in their future well-being. Among other 
things, the importance of securing a coffin ac- 
cording to the approved fashion, is duly rec- 
ognized, and as men approach their three- 
score years and ten this consideration not un- 
frequently impels them to buy their own 
coffins, which they keep carefully by them 
until their time comes.* The present of a 
coffin is considered a dutiful attention from a 
son to an aged father, and in cases where it 
is inconvenient, from want of room, to keep 
it in the house, a resting-place is willingly 
given it in the neighboring temple. 

The next event of importance is the choice 
of a site for the grave. This has to be de- 
termined by a professor of the " Fung-shuy " 
superstition, who, compass in hand, explores 
the desired district to find a spot which com- 

* Some eccentric men have been known to sleep in them. 



The SouVs Movements. 419 

bines all the qualities necessary for the quiet 
repose of the dead. This should be at the 
junction of the two supposed magnetic currents 
which are known as the " azure dragon " and 
the "white tiger," whose presence is made 
known by the configuration of the ground. It 
must be perfectly dry, and be free from white 
ants and all such disturbing influences arising 
from conflicting heavenly or terrestrial elements 
as may interfere with the soul's unrestricted 
egress and ingress. When such a favored spot 
has been discovered, a Taouist priest is called 
in to determine a lucky day for the burial. 
This is by no means an easy matter, and it 
often happens that the dead remain unburied 
for months, and even for years, on account 
of the difficulties in the way of choosing 
either fortunate graves or lucky days. It is 
probable that the increased fees demanded b}^ 
protracted investigations do not tend to hasten 
the process. 

As soon as the site is chosen and the rites 
are completed, the chief mourner goes with work- 
men to the spot to dig the grave. Before be- 
ginning he worships the genii of the moun- 
tain, and reads aloud a notification addressed 



420 Funeral Rites. 

to those spirits, in these words : " We, the 
sons and relatives of such and such a one, 
who died on such and such a day, intend to 
bury his remains here, and, as now it is our 
desire to make ready the tomb, we pray you 
not only to grant your sanction to such a 
proceeding on our part, but at all times to 
care for and prosper us. Moreover, we respect- 
fully beg to present to you offerings of fruits 
and wines, which be graciously pleased to ac- 
cept." This letter having been sent on its 
way, by being burnt to ashes, the work be- 
gins, and, when the requisite depth is attained 
the bottom of the grave is protected from 
damp by a layer of lime and charcoal. 

Everything being now ready for the inter- 
ment, a special service is held before the an- 
cestral tablet of the deceased, and the fol- 
lowing announcement is made to the spirit : 
" Perpetuating the rite of removal, and the 
propitious hour no longer delaying, we are 
now about to escort the funeral car, and thus 
reverently to walk in the paths of our ances- 
tors." The assembled family then prostrate 
themselves before the tablet, with tears and 
loud lamentations. 



Dangerous Grhosts. 421 

As the coffin is lifted the members of the 
famity rush into the adjoining rooms lest the 
ghost of the dead man should, owing to some 
sin of commission or omission, strike them in 
his wrath, with sickness or a curse. At the 
door of the house the coffin is placed upon 
a bier, and the procession, which varies in 
length and arrangement according to the wealth 
of the mourners and the part of the empire, 
marches off in the following order ; " two men 
bearing large lanterns, recording the family 
name, age, and titles of the deceased ; two 
men, each bearing a gong, which he beats 
loudly at intervals, to give warning of the ap- 
proach of the cavalcade ; and sixteen musi- 
cians, immediately followed by men with flags, 
and by others carrying red boards with the 
titles of the deceased and of his ancestors in- 
scribed on them in letters of gold .... 
The ancestral tablets are followed by four 
richly carved and gilded canopies — carried 
sometimes by horses, sometimes by men — 
under each of which are arranged offerings for 
the dead. The portrait of the deceased comes 
next, carried in a sedan-chair, and followed 
by a band of musicians. Next comes a sedan- 



422 Funeral Bites. 

chair, with a wooden tablet inscribed with the 
names of the deceased. Then follows a man 
called Fung-loo-chun-jin, who scatters, at in- 
tervals, pieces of paper supposed to represent 
ingots of silver and gold. The mock-money 
is intended for hungry ghosts, i. e., for the 
souls of men who have died at the corners of 
streets .... Next come the sons of the 
deceased," * immediately in front of the bier, 
which is followed by the rest of the relatives, 
both male and female. The only animal which 
is carried in the procession is a white cock, 
which is supposed to be the depository of one 
of the three souls witli which men are cred- 
ited. The argument is, that as cocks are 
birds of the East, and as the East is the door 
of life, that they can best contain that part 
of man which is immortal. At the brink of 
tlie grave the cock is either sacrificed, by 
which means the soul is released into the 
tomb, or it is made to incline forward three 
times into the grave, by each member of the 
family. 

If the distance to the grave is short, the 
mourners walk in the procession, with the ex- 

* Arch-deacon Gray's "China," Vol. I. 



■■^ Funeral Bake-meats. 423 

ception of the small-footed women, who are, 
for the most part, carried on the backs of 
their female attendants; but when the dis- 
tance is considerable, the mourners, both male 
and female, travel in sedan-chairs, if in the 
south of China, and in carts or on horse- 
back, if in the north. On arrival at the grave 
the mourners perform the Ko-t'ow before the 
coffin, the men on the left and the women 
on the right. The coffin is then lowered in 
the grave, and the Fung-shuy professor, hav- 
ing satisfied himself that it is in exactly the 
right position, proceeds to burn a quantity of 
mock-monej^, carriages, images of men-servants 
and maid-servants, for the use of the deceased 
in his next existence. 

The procession returns to the house in the 
order in which it went out, and the ancestral 
tablet having been placed in the position 
proper for it during the first hundred days 
of mourning, the mourners sit down to the 
baked meats of the funeral feast. At the end 
of a hundred days tlie sons and near rela- 
tives shave their heads and exchange their 
white shoes, and white silken additions to their 
queues, for blue ones, that color being the 



424 Funeral Rites. 

next stage towards a return to the ordinary 
colors of every-day life. By a common fiction, 
the period of three years' mourning is reduced 
to twenty-seven weeks, at the end of which 
time the family return to the use of red vis- 
itnig-cards, and remove from their dwelhng 
and attire all traces of their grief. Sons hold- 
ing official rank return to their posts, candi- 
dates for examination present themselves before 
the examiners, and the intermitted ceremonies 
of marrying and giving in marriage are again 
entered upon with alacrity. 

On the anniversary of the death of the de- 
ceased, and also in the third month in each 
year, the family go to the tomb to sacrifice 
at it to their ancestors. The tombs, which 
are all designed, not according to the taste 
of the survivors, but in obedience to recog- 
nized rules, vary in size and in other par- 
ticulars, according to the rank of the deceased 
and the part of the empire. In the southern 
provinces, and on the plains in the north, the 
tombs and graveyards are shaped in the form 
of an omega, which, if it were not traceable to 
the requirements of Fung-shuy, might be sup- 
posed to have been adopted from the conven- 



Sepulchres. 



425 



tional symbol for the end among the Greeks. 
A duke, marquis, or earl, is entitled to a 
sepulchre one hundred and thirty yards in 
circumference, with four entrances ; officials 
of the first and second rank must be con- 
tent to lie within a boundary of one hundred 




IN A CHINESE CEMliTLltV. 



and ten yards long, and to possess only 
two doors; officials of the third, fourth, and 
fifth ranks are reduced to a hundred yards ; 
and the still lower grades to sixty yards. 



426 Funeral Rites. 

A sliding-scale is also provided in the mat- 
ter of the avenues of stone figures which lead 
up to the sepulchres of the great. For every 
one, from a duke to an official of the second 
rank, it is decreed that their tombs may be 
protected by two stone men, two horses, two 
tigers, and two rams, besides two pillars at 
the entrance. The figures are generally made 
life-size or laiger, and of granite. The tomb- 
stone, which records the name and titles of 
the deceased and the dates of his birth and 
death, stands on the back of a stone tortoise, 
and above the inscription is carved the figure 
of a weird-looking, hornless dragon. In Shanse 
and other parts of the empire the sepulchral 
monuments vary very much in shape. Black 
glazed tiles generally cover the tombs in 
Shan-se, and a not infrequent form of monu- 
ment is that of a huge lighted candle. 

The imperial tombs infinitely excel the tombs 
of the highest nobles in size and grandeur. 
The burying-place of the emperors of the Ming 
Dynasty was in the neighborhood of Nanking, 
while those of the present line repose among 
the mountains to the northeast of Peking. 

Universal as the practice of burying may 



Cremation. 427 

be said to be in China, there are exceptions 
to it. The Buddhist priests as a rule, prefer 
cremation ; and this custom, which came from 
India with the religion they profess, has at 
times found imitators among the laity. In 
Formosa the dead are exposed and dried in 
the air, and some of the Meaou-tsze tribes of 
Central and Southern China bury their dead, 
it is true, but after an interval of a year or 
more, having chosen a lucky day, they dis- 
inter them. On such occasions they go ac- 
companied by llieir friends, to the grave, and, 
having opened the tomb, they take out the 
bones, and, after having brushed and washed 
them clean, they put them back wrapped in 
cloth. 



CHAPTER XVII. 



THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA. 




fr^R E Chinese 
describe them- 
selves as hav- 
ing three re- 
ligious. More 
accurately, 
there are three 
sects, namely, 
Joo keaou, the 
sect of Schol- 
ar s ; Fu h 
keaou^ the sect of Buddha ; and Taou keaou, 
the sect of Taou. Both as regards age and 
origin, the sect of Scholars, or as it is gener- 
ally called, Confucianism, represents pre-emi- 
nently the religion of China. It has its root 
in the worship of Shang-te, a deity which is 
associated with the earliest traditions of the 

428 



The Views of Confucius. 429 

Chinese race. Hwang-te (2697 B. c.) erected a 
temple to his honor, and succeeding emperors 
worshiped before his shrine. The very uncer- 
tain light that history throws on the condition 
of the empire during the Hea Dynasty and the 
preceding centuries, makes it Impossible to pre- 
dicate anything of the relations in which the 
sovereigns and people stood to Shang-te; but 
with the rise to power of the Shang Dynasty 
(b. c. 1766 - 1401), we find a belief prevailing 
in the personal interference of Shang-te in the 
affairs of man. It was due to him that, as a 
reward for virtuous and godly living, aien were 
raised to the throne, and contrariwise, Iiis was 
the avenging hand which drove into obscurity 
those sovereigns who had deserted the paths 
of rectitude. Thus we read in the Shoo-king 
that, ''moved with indignation at the. crime 
of King Show, Great Heaven (i. e. Shan-te) 
charged King Wan (the twelfth century B. c.) 
to display its majesty, and to destroy the 
tyrant.*' 

During the troublous times which followed 
after the reign of the few first sovereigns of 
the Chow Dynasty, the belief in a personal 
deity grew indistinct and dim, until, when 



430 The Religions of China. 

Confucius began his career, there appeared 
nothing strange in his atheistic doctrines. He 
never in any way denied the existence of 
Shang-te, but he ignored him.* His concern 
was with man as a member of society, and 
the object of his teaching was to lead him into 
those paths of rectitude which might • best con- 
tribute to his own happiness, and to the well- 
being of that community of which he formed 
part. Man, he held, was born good, and was 
endowed with qualities which, when cultivated 
and improved by watchfulness and self-restraint, 
might enable him to acquire godlike wisdom, 
and to become " the equal of Heaven." He 
divided mankind into four classes, viz., those 
who are born with the possession of knowl- 
edge ; those who learn, and so readil}^ get pos- 
session of knowledge; those who are dull and 
stupid, and yet succeed in learning ; lastly, 
those who are dull and stupid, and yet do not 
learn." To all these, except those of the 
last class, the path to the climax reached by 

* Confucius did not profess to be a religious teacher, or prophet, nor to receive 
revelations. He confessed that there was a Supreme Being. More than that 
he did not profess to know. He avoided speculations, and said in one of his 
maxims, " To know what one does know, and not to know what one does not 
know, is knowledge." The author seems to fail to appreciate the character of 
Confucius perfectly in the above remarks. 




A BUDDHIST AHBOT. 



Self Cultivation. 433 

the " Sage " is open. Man has only to 
watch, listen to, understand, and obey the 
moral sense implanted in him by Heaven, 
and the highest perfection is within his 
reach. The self-cultivation of each man 
was the root of the system which is thus 
epitomized in the " Great Learning," by Tsang, 
one of Confucius's disciples: — "The ancients 
who wished to 'illustrate illustrious virtue 
throughout the empire, first ordered well their 
own states. Wishing to order well their own 
states, they first regulated their own families. 
Wishing to regulate their families, they first 
cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate 
their persons, they first rectified their hearts. 
Wishing to rectify their hearts, they first 
sought to be sincere in their thoughts. Wish- 
ing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first 
extended to the utmost their knowledge. Such 
extension of knowledge lay in the investigation 
of things. When things were investigated, 
knowledge became complete. • Their knowledge 
being complete, their thoughts became sin- 
cere. Their thoughts being sincere, their 
hearts were then rectified. Their hearts 

being rectified, tlieir persons were cultivated. 

28 



434 The Religions of China. 

Their persons being cultivated, their families 
were regulated. Their families being reg- 
ulated, their states were rightlj^ governed. 
Their states being rightly governed, the whole 
empire was made tranquil and happy." Like 
the widening ripple caused by dropping a stone 
into a pool, all these consequences were to 
flow from self-cultivation, the effect of which 
finds its expression in words and conduct. 
Principally, however, it is expressed in the 
exercise of filial piety, which is the corner- 
stone of the Confucian edifice. 

In this system there is no place for a per- 
sonal God. The impersonal Heaven, accord- 
ing to Confucius, implants a pure nature in 
ever}^ being at his birth, but, having done this, 
there is no further supernatural interference 
with the thoughts and deeds of men. It is 
in the power of each one to perfect his 
nature, and there is no divine influence to 
restrain those who take the downward course. 
Man has his destiny in his own hands, to 
make or to mar. Neither had Confucius any 
inducement to offer to encourage men in the 
practice of virtue, except virtue's self. He 
was a matter-of-fact, unimaginative man, who 



The Worship of Shang-te. 435 

was quite content to occupy himself with 
the study of his fellow-men, and was disin- 
clined to grope into the future or to peer up- 
wards. No wonder that his system, as he 
enunciated it, proved a failure. Eagerly he 
sought in the execution of his official duties 
to effect the regeneration of the empire, but 
beyond the circle of his personal disciples he 
found few followers, and as soon as princes 
and statesmen had satisfied their curiosity 
about him they turned their backs on his 
precepts and would none of his reproofs. 

Succeeding ages, recognizing the loftiness of 
his aims, eliminated all that was impractica- 
ble and unreal in his system, and held fast 
to that part of it that was true and good. 
They were content to accept the logic of 
events, and to throw overboard the ideal 
"sage," and to ignore the supposed potency 
of his influence ; but they clung to the doc- 
trines of filial piety, brotherly love, and vir- 
tuous living. It is admiration for the 
emphasis which he laid on these and other 
virtues which has drawn so many millions of 
men unto him ; which has made his tomb 
at Keo-foo-heen the Mecca of Confucianism, 



436 The Religions of China, 

and has adorned every city of the empire 
with temples built in his honor. Twice a 
year the emperor goes in state to the Kwo- 
tsze-keen temple at Peking, and having twice 
knelt, and six times bowed bis head, to the 
earth, invokes the presence of the sage in 
these words: — ''Great art thou, O perfect 
Sage ! Thy virtue is full ; thy doctrine is 
complete. Among mortal men there has not 
been thine equal. All kings honor thee. 
Thy statutes and laws have come gloriousl}^ 
down. Thou art the pattern of this imperial 
school. Reverently have the sacrificial vessels 
been set out. Full of awe we sound our 
drums and bells." 

On the same dates, in the spring and 
autumn, the officials in every city go to the 
local temples, and there imitate the reverence 
and worship of their imperial master. Con- 
currently with the lapse of pure Confucianism, 
and the adoption of those principles which 
find theii* earliest expression in the pre- 
Confucian classes of China, there is observ- 
able a return to the worship of Shang-te. 
The most magnificent temple in the empire is 
the Temple of Heaven, at Peking, where the 



Taouism. 437 

highest object of Cliinese worship is adored 
with th-e purest rites. The emperor, as repre- 
sentative of the empire, alone worships at this 
sacred shrine, where no trace of idolatry 
finds a place. Thrice a year he proceeds in 
state to this azure-tiled holy place, as well 
as on other special occasions. The evening 
before the day of sacrifice, he goes in an 
elephant carriage, accompanied by his princes 
and ministers, to the Palace of Fasting adjoin- 
ing the temple, and there spends the night 
in meditation. At dawn of day he ascends 
the Altar of Heaven, which consists of three 
round marble terraces, and is reached by 
twentj^-seven steps. Here he prostrates him- 
self before the tablet of Shang-te, and hav- 
ing presented the sacrifices prescribed in the 
rituals, he offers up a prayer, in which he 
humbles himself before the deity, and be- 
seeches him to bestow his blessings on the 
land. What is popularl}^ known in Europe as 
Confucianism is, therefore, Confucianism with 
the distinctive opinions of Confucius omitted — 
the play of Hamlet without the ghost ; and is 
far more correctly described by the Chinese 
denomination of Joo Jceaou, or sect of scholars, 



438 The Religions of China. 

since it finds its expression in those ancient 
classical works from which alone the scholars 
of the empire draw their faith and wisdom. 

This worship of Shang-te is confined only to 
the emperor. The people have no lot or 
heritage in the sacred acts of worship at the 
Altar of Heaven. Their part in the Joo keaou 
is to reverence their parents, to love their 
brothers, to obey their rulers, to be content 
with the knowledge placed within their reach, 
to live peaceably with their neighbors, and to 
pay their taxes. These are the main points 
insisted on in the sixteen Maxims of the 
Emperor K'ang-he, and they are the popular 
outcome of an impossible system, which ap- 
pealed only to the intellects of a small body 
of scholars. 

Side by side with the revival of the Joo 
keaou, under the influence of Confucius, grew 
up a system of a totally different nature, 
which, when divested of its esoteric doctrines, 
and reduced by the practically-minded China- 
men to a code of morals, was destined in 
future ages to become affiliated witli the 
teachings of the Sage. This was Taouism, 
which was founded by Laou-tsze, who was a 



Laou-Tsze, 439 

contemporary of Confucius. An air of mys- 
tery hangs over the history of Laou-tsze. Of 
his parentage we know nothing, and the histo- 
rians, in their anxiety to conceal their igno- 
rance of his earlier years, shelter themselves 
behind the legend that he was born an old 
man. He certainly first appears on the stage 
when past middle age, and in this he affords 
a marked contrast to his great rival, about 
whose birth, childhood, and youth, we have 
abundant detail. His appearance also was 
unusual. His ears were large, his eyebrows 
were handsome, he had large eyes, a double- 
ridged nose, and a square mouth. These are 
very un-Chinese features, and, coupled with 
the fact that nothing is known either of his 
early daj^s or of his declining years, they 
suggest the possibility that he was a foreigner, 
or perhaps a member of an aboriginal fron- 
tier tribe. But this supposition finds some 
countenance in the name of Le, which he 
assumed, that being the name of one of the 
most powerful tribes in ancient China. By 
some it is said that he was born at the vil- 
lage of Keuh jin (''oppressed benevolence"), in 
the parish of Le, ("cruelty"), in the district 



440 The Religions of China, 

of K'oo ("bitterness"), in the state of Ts'oo 
C' suffering.") This K'oo is commonly identi- 
fied with an ancient city of that name, which 
stood near the modern Kwei-tih Foo, in the 
province of Honan. At K'oo-yang, which now 
occupies the same site, a house is shown in 
which Laou-tsze is said to have lived, and 
his memory is still further preserved there by 
a temple which is dedicated to his honor. 

This is all that his biographers have to 
tell us of him until he appears as Keeper of 
the Archives at the Court of Chow, which 
occupied a part of the same province. Here 
we find him, surrounded by a band of disci- 
ples, teaching a system which embodied so 
many of the leading doctrines of the Indian 
philosophers that the question suggests itself, 
wliether or no he might not have become, in 
some wa}^ • imbued with the tenets of those 
men. We know that communication with 
India was open, even at that period, and it 
might be that he was either a . native of that 
country or of one of the intervening states. 
If this were so, it would account for the 
existing ignorance of his family history, and 
for his being lost to sight when he resigned 



An Eternal Road, 441 

his office at the Court of Chow, and passed 
westward through the Hau-koo Pass. The 
object of his teachmg was to induce men, by 
the practice of self-abnegation, to become at 
last absorbed in something that he called 
Taou^ which bears a certain resemblance to 
the Nirvana of the Buddhists. The pri- 
mary meaning of Taou is, " The way," " The 
path," but in Laou-tsze's philosophy it was 
more than the way, it was the way-goer as 
well. It was an eternal road ; along it all 
beings and things walked ; it was everything 
and nothing, and the cause and effect of all. 
All things originated from Taou^ conformed 
to Taou^ and to Taou at last returned. '-'-Taou 
is impalpable. You look at it, and you cannot 
see it ; you listen to it, and you cannot hear 
it ; you try to touch it, and you cannot 
reach it ; you use it, and you cannot exhaust 
it. It is not to be expressed in words. It is 
still and void ; it stands alone and changes 
not ; it circulates everywhere and is not en- 
dangered. It is ever inactive, and yet leaves 

nothing undone Formless, it is the 

cause of form It is the ethical nature 

of the good man, and the principle of his 



442 The Religions of China, 

action. If, then, we had to express the mean 
ing of Taou^ we should describe it as the 
Absolute; the totality of Being and Things; 
the phenomenal world and its order; and the 
ethical nature of the good man, and the 
principle of his action."* 

It was absorption into this "Mother of all 
things" that Laou-tsze aimed at. And this 
end was to be attained bj self-emptiness, 
and by giving free scope to the uncontam- 
inated nature which, like Confucius, he taught 
was given by Heaven to all men. His was 
a more radical cure for the evils of the age 
than that of his rival. Confucius said that 
the great reformation necessary was to rectify 
names. Laou-tsze said. Return to the man- 
ners of the time before vice had made names 
necessary, before disobedience to parents had 
given rise to the expression "filial piety," and 
before family contentions and rudeness had 
made men formulate the terms "brotherly love 
and propriety." These subtleties, like the 
more abstruse speculations of Confucius, were 
suited only to the taste of the schools. To 
the common people they were foolishness, and, 

*" Confucianism and Taouism." 



A Si/stem of Magic. 443 

before long, the philosopliical doctrine of Laou- 
tsze of the identity of existence and non- 
existence, assumed in their eyes a warrant for 
the old Epicurean motto, " Let us eat and 
drink, for to-morrow we die." The pleasures 
of sense were substituted for the delights of 
virtue, and the next step was to desire pro- 
longation of the time when those pleasures 
could be enjoyed. Legend said that Laou-tsze 
had secured immunity from death by drinking 
the elixir of immortality, and to enjoy the 
same privilege became the all-absorbing object 
of his followers. The demand for elixirs and 
charms produced a supply, and Taouism 
quickly degenerated into a system of magic. 
Mountains were searched for life-giving herbs, 
and the seas were swept to discover the 
"Lsles of the Blest." Magicians and sorcerers 
occupied high places at the courts of empe- 
rors, and all the unselfish and virtuous teacli- 
ings of Laou-tsze were forgotten. 

The superstitious credulity of the people 
almost exceeded belief, but had at last, as far 
as the elixir of immortality was concerned, to 
yield to the stern logic of facts, and the at- 
tempt to avert those ills of life, disease and 



444 The Religions of China, 

poverty, which have pressed so hardly on 
hunianit}^ through all ages, took tlie place of 
vain seekings after perpetual youth. Charms 
and magical formula were invented to abolish 
want and sickness, and gods were called into 
being to preside over the distribution of bless- 
ings to mankind ; but, while this was the 
facet of the 'many-sided religion which caught 
the eye of the vulgar and illiterate, there was 
shown to the educated and upper classes an 
ethical system, moulded out of the moral say- 
ings of Laou-tsze, which differed little from 
the popular aspect of Confucianism. The con- 
cessions thus made, were met by corresponding 
concessions on the part of Confucianists, who 
have practically adopted into their cult the 
worship of many of the gods which were in- 
vented by the Taouists. Wan cKang te keun, 
the god of literature, for example, receives 
imperial worship twice in each year, and is 
universally invoked on behalf of their efforts 
by competitors at the literary examinations. 
The monopoly which Taouist priests enjoy, as 
the exponents of the mysteries of nature, 
make them indispensabl}^ necessary to all 
classes, and the most confirmed Confucianist 



The Mo7iopoly of Taouism, 



445 



does not hesitate to consult the followers 
of Laou-tsze on the choice of the site for 
his house, the position of his family grave- 




A CHINESE SHRINE. 



yard, or a fortunate day for undertaking an 
enterprise. Apart from the practice of these 
magical arts, Taouism has become assimilated 



446 The Religions of China, 

with modern Confucianism, and is scarcely 
distinguishable from it; but in its more de- 
based and superstitious form it is as far removed 
from Confucianism as Shamanism is from the 
teachings of Sakyamuni 

The teachings of Laou-tsze having familiar- 
ized the Chinese mind with philosophical doc- 
trines, which, whatever were their direct 
source, bore a marked resemblance to the 
musings of Indian sages, served to prepare the 
way for the introduction of Buddhism. The 
exact date at which the Chinese first became 
acquainted with the doctrines of Buddha was, 
according to an author quoted in K'ang-he's 
Imperial Encyclopaedia, the thirtieth year of 
the reign of She Hwang-te, i. g., B. c. 216. 
The story this writer tells of the difficulties 
which the first missionaries encountered is 
curious and singularly suggestive of the nar- 
rative of St. Peter's imprisonment. The 
Western Shaman, Le-fang, with seventeen 
others, arrived, we are told, at Loyang, in 
the year mentioned, bringing with them origi- 
nal sutras in Braham's [Fan] characters. 
Being foreigners, they were examined b}^ tlie 
officials, and by the emperor's orders, were 



Introduction of Buddhism, 4:^1 

thrown into prison as " strange customers ; " 
but Le-fang and his comrades continued chant- 
ing the Maha Prajna Paramita, when sud- 
denly a bright and shining light, accompanied 
by an auspicious halo, permeated into and 
filled the prison. At the same time a deity 
appeared, bright as gold {literally^ golden 
deity), holding in his hand a sceptre with 
which, with exceeding majesty, he struck the 
prison [walls], which were shivered to atoms. 
Lefang and his companions then came forth, and 
the emperor, alarmed by the miracle, repented 
of his sin, and treated his quondam prisoners 
with every sign of marked respect. • 

What became of them we are not told ; 
possibly, disgusted with the reception they 
had met, they returned whence they came. 
At all events, the}^ left no mark on the 
minds of the people, and the next reference 
to Buddhism, or what is claimed to be Bud- 
dhism, is found in the history of the 
reign of Woo-te, who, in B. c. 120, sent Gen- 
eral Ho K'ii-p'ing with a large force against 
the Heung-noo Tartars. This officer, we are 
told, having crossed the Yen-k'e Mountains 
(in Turkestan ?), defeated the enem}^ and 



448 The Religions of China, 

carried back with him, as a trophy of his 
victory, a golden image which had been the 
object of the king Heo-t'u's worship; but even 
if the image was that of Buddha, no " in- 
struction in the religion was received with it, 
and it was reserved for the Emperor Ming-te, 
a hundred and eighty-two years later, to in- 
troduce a knowledge of that system which, in 
purity and loftiness of aim, takes its place 
next to Christianity among the religions of 
the world. One night he dreamed that a 
monster golden image appeared, and address- 
ing him, said: "Buddha bids you send to 
the Western countries to search for him, and 
to get books and images." Ming-te obeyed, 
and sent an embassy to India, which returned 
after an absence of eleven years, bringing 
back images, drawings, and the Sutra of 
fortj^-two Sections, and, what was more im- 
portant, the mission was accompanied by the 
Indian, Kasyapa Matanga, who, on his ar- 
rival at Loyang, translated the Sutra into 
Chinese. Kasyapa Mataiiga was followed by 
Fa-lan, who brought with him, among other 
works, the Dasabhumi Sutra and the Lalita 
Vistara. These, in conjunction with his fellow- 



Missionaries from India, 449 

laborer, he translated into Chinese, and from 
this time Buddhism grew and prevailed in the 
land. 

During the next few centuries constant ad- 
ditions were made to the number of the In- 
dian missionaries, who were indefatigable in 
their work as translators. In many cases their 
zeal was greater than the accuracy of their 
knowledge of the Chinese language, and in 
the beginning of the fifth century it was deter- 
mined to have a revised version of the trans- 
lated Sutras made. For this purpose Kumara- 
jiva, a learned Indian priest, was invited to 
the Court of Tsin, where he was given 
office, and where, with the help of eight hun- 
dred priests, he revised three hundred volumes. 
While this work was in contemplation, a 
Chinese Buddhist, Fa-heen by name, started 
on a journey to India, to procure the texts 
of Buddhist works yet unknown to his coun- 
trymen. By a somewhat circuitous route by 
the Steppes of Tartary, the Country of the 
Ouighurs, and Afghanistan, he reached the goal 
of his desires. With all the zeal of a convert 
he visited, with devotion, the spots made 
sacred by the presence of Buddha, never, how- 
29 



450 The Religions of China, 

ever, forgetting the main object of his jour- 
ney, and finally returned to China by sea from 
Ceylon, after an absence of fourteen years, 
laden with books. 

Besides books and images, relics of Buddha 
were brought to China, and were received with 
every token of honor. The priest, Hiuen-tsang, 
who visited India rather more than two cen- 
turies later than Fa-heen, carried back with 
him a hundred and fifteen bits taken from 
Buddha's chain. At other times bones of the 
Saint aroused the religious rapture of tlie 
Chinese converts, and at the present time, in 
a dim glass case in a temple on the Sacred 
Mount of Teen-tai, near Ningpo, there is shown 
a scrap of the body of Buddha, which was 
saved from the burning. To those devout dis- 
ciples, who have the mind of Buddha, this 
precious relic appears to be of a yellow color, 
but to those of less spiritual discernment no 
such golden hue is vouchsafed. 

The literati protested against the worship of 
the relics as vehemently as they have since 
objected to Christianity ; but the instinct of 
the nation declared otherwise, and they had 
the mortification of seeing pagoda after pagoda 



Bodhidharma arrives* 



451 



raised to cover a bone, or a scrap of the 
flesh, or, it may chance, a hair of the head, 
of Buddha. At the beginning of the sixth 
century it is said that there were three thou- 
sand Indians in China, and it was at this time 

\\\m - - -'""'^^"- 




IN A TEMPLE. 



that Bodhidharma, the first of the six patri- 
archs, arrived at Canton by sea. By his teach- 
ing was first brought to the knowledge of the 
Chinese the Mahayana system, which was the 
outcome of the change whicli Buddhism had 



452 The Religions of China. 

undergone in India. It was prophesied by- 
Buddha that for five hundred years the purity 
of his doctrine would be maintained, bat that 
a thousand years after his time men would 
depart from the true path and wander in the 
labyrinths of heresy. 

Even before the time foretold by the saint 
his professing followers began to weary of the 
moral asceticism and active self-denying cliarity 
of which his system consisted, and turned 
aside in pursuit of philosophical and abstrusely 
metaphysical ideas, and in search of ritualistic 
emblems and idolatrous symbolism. The non- 
existence of existence, and the unreality of 
everything beyond the mind, were the texts 
on which these men loved to enlarge, and 
when weary with disputations they retired to 
cloistered cells and mountain-caves, to practise 
that abstraction of the mind whicli alone, they 
believed, would enable them to suppress lust, 
to conquer the sensations, and to attain bliss. 
For nine years Bodhidharma sat with his face 
to a wall in a monastery at Loyang, and 
earned for himself a high reputation for spirit- 
uality by so doing, and when the time came 
for him to die he departed in the full odor 



The Mysterious Nirvdna. 453 

of sanctity. "Where are you going?" inquired 
Sung-yun the Traveller, of his corpse, as it lay 
in tlie coffin, holding one shoe in its hand. 
" To tlie western heaven," was the confident 
and ghostly reply. 

With the introduction of the Mahayana sys- 
tem the mysterious Nirvana had, as a reward 
for virtue, been supplemented by a "Pure land 
in the West," where there is " fulness of life, 
and no pain nor sorrow mixed with it; no 
need to be born again, no Nirvana even. 

There are there, also, a sevenfold row of 
railings, or of balustrades, a sevenfold row of 
silken nets, and a sevenfold row of trees hedg- 
ing in the whole countr3^ In the midst there 
are seven precious ponds, the waters of which 
possess all the eight qualities which the best 
water can have, viz., they are still, pure and 
cold, sweet and agreeable, light and soft, fresh 
and rich; they tranquilize, remove hunger and 
thirst, and nourish all roots. The bottom of 
these ponds is covered with golden sands, and 
round about there are pavements constructed 
of precious stones and metals, and many two- 
storied pavilions built of riclily-colored tran- 
sparent jewels. On the surface of the water 



454 The Religions of China. 

there are beautiful lotos-flowers floating, each 
as large as a carriage-wheel, displaying the 
most dazzling colors, and dispersing the most 
fragrant aroma. There are also beautiful birds 
which make delicious enchanting music, and at 
every breath of wind the very trees on which 
these birds are resting join in the chorus, shak- 
ing their leaves in trembling accords of sweet- 
est harmony .... This music is like Lieder 
ohne Worte ; its melodies speak to the heart ; 
but they discourse on Buddha,* Dharmo, and 
Samgha, and wake an echo in every breast, 
so that all the immortals that live in this 
happ3' land instinctively join in hymns of praise, 
devoutly invoking Buddha, Dharma, and Samglia. 
Such was the blissful region to which Bod- 
hidharma declared himself to be marching on, 
and such is the heaven which Chinese Budd- 
hists of the present day hope to reach ; but 
this goal is not to be attained by an effort, 
however praiseworthy, which would only con- 
taminate the mind. It is to be won solely 
by abstracting the mind from everything be- 
yond itself, by sitting before a wall (if not 
actually, as the first patriarch did, yet men- 

* Eitel's "Lectures on Buddhism." 



Pure Nothingness. 455 

tally), by seeing nothing, hearing nothing, and 
thinking of nothing. The invention of this 
pure region has, no doubt, been of infinite 
advantage to the cause of Buddhism in China, 
since it presents a practical reward for merit, 
and is one that the ordinary Chinaman can 
realize ; but its existence is obviously inconsis- 
tent with the orthodox belief in Nirvana. 
However much schools may differ as to what 
Nirvana is, they must all be agreed that it 
is not a material paradise, such as the Pure 
land in the West, which, like Dan and Beersheba 
consecrated by Jeroboam who made Israel to 
sin, is evidently intended as an easily attain- 
able substitute for the Jerusalem of Nirvana. 
To the school of Buddhists which regards 
Nirvana as absolute annihilation, the idea of 
a paradise into which neither pain nor sorrow 
nor death can enter, where there is perfect 
happiness and rest, and where every surround- 
ing is but a note in one harmonious melody 
of peace and jo}^ is a temptation strong enough 
to try the orthodoxy of the staun chest Budd- 
hists, but in China, as elsewhere, the views held 
by Buddhists on the subject of Nirvana differ 
widely. There are those who believe in the 



456 The Religions of China. 

annihilation theorj', and there are those who 
hold that the annihilation refers only to the 
material body of man, and that when this is 
extinguished, " like the flame of a lamp," the 
spiritual body enters into a state of absolute 
and complete purity, where it is free from the 
circles of metempsychosis, and is beyond the 
reach of all sin and passion. Some, again, hold 
that the Pure land in the West is but a 
preliminary stage on the way to Nirvana, and 
that there the righteous soul is allowed to en- 
joy ages of happiness before it has again to 
enter the circles of metempsychosis, and by a 
fresh course of virtue to win its way to the 
supreme bliss of Nirv£ina. 

Such a theme admits of the wildest specula- 
tions, and the philosophers of each school have 
given 'full rein to their imaginations in the 
exercise of their sophistical casuistry upon it. 
The followers of the Mali ay ana system dissolve 
every possible proposition on the subject of 
Nirvana into a thesis and its antithesis, and 
deny both. Thus they say that Nirvana is 
not annihilation, and quote a noted saying of 
Sakyamuni's, the "name Nirvana does not im- 
ply that it is a state of annihilation ; " but 








i 






y^-mrK'.v, 



ff;^^^r^M^:MM^m 



Sakyamuni on Nirvana. 459 

they also deny its positive objective reality. 
According to them, the soul enjoys in Nirvana 
neither existence nor non-existence, it is 
neither eternal nor non-eternal, neither anni- 
hilated nor non-annihilated. Nirvana is to 
them a state of which nothing can be said, 
to which no attributes can be given ; it is al- 
together an abstract, devoid alike of all posi- 
tive and negative qualities. * 

As it was found necessary to invent a ter- 
restrial paradise to suit the material aspiration 
of the people, so it was imperative to develop 
out of the extreme transcendentalism of the 
Mahayana school, a system which should ap- 
peal to their superstitious materialism. Like 
the Jews of old, they were eager after signs, 
and self-interest made their spiritual rulers 
nothing loth to grant them their desire. From 
the mountains and monasteries came men who 
claimed to possess the elixir of immortality, 
and proclaimed themselves adepts in witchcraft 
and sorcery. By magic incantations they exor- 
cised evil spirits, and dissipated famine, pesti- 
lence, and disease. By the exercise of their 
supernatural powers they rescued souls from 

*"The Chinese Recorder." Vol. iii, No. i. 



460 The Religions of China. 

hell, and arrested pain and death. In the ser- 
vices of the church they added ritual to ritual, 
and surrounded with tawdry ceremonial the 
worship of their multiplied images. By sucb 
means tliey won their way among the people, 
and even sternly orthodox Confucianists make 
use of their services to chant the liturgies of 
the dead. 

While that inexorable taskmaster, Supersti- 
tion, compels even the wise and the learned 
to pay their homage to folly, there is scarcely 
an educated Chinaman who would not indig- 
nantly repudiate the imputation of being a 
follower of Buddha; and though the com- 
mon people throng the temples to bu}^ charms 
and consult astrologers, they yet thoroughly de- 
spise both the priests and the religion they 
profess-. Buddhism has after all been a bless- 
ing rather than a curse in China. It has, to 
a certain extent, lifted the mind of the people 
from the too exclusive consideration of mun- 
dane affairs, to the contemplation of a future 
state. It has taught them to value more 
highly purity of life ; to exercise self-constraint 
and to forget self; and to practise love and 
charity towards their neighbors. 




A CHINESE MAHOMEDAN. 



The Three G-reat Sects. 463 

From what has been said it will be seen 
that no clearly defined line of demarcation 
separates the three great sects of China. Each 
has borrowed from the others, until it may be 
doubted whether there are to be found any pure 
Confucianists, pure Buddhists, or pure Taouists. 
Confucianism has provided the moral basis on 
which the national character of the Cliinese 
rests, and Buddhism and Taouism have sup- 
plied the supernatural elements wanting in 
that system. Speaking generally, the religion 
of China is a medley of the three great sects, 
which are now so closely interlaced tliat it 
is impossible either to classify, localize, or 
enumerate the adherents of each creed. 

The only other religion of importance in 
China is Mahomedanism, which is confined 
to the southwestern and northwestern prov- 
inces of the empire, but since the suppression 
of the Panthay rebellion in Yunnan, there has 
been a gradual decline in the number of the 
followers of the Prophet. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



THE LANGUAGE. 



NE curious circum- 
stance connected 
with the Chinese 
is, tbat though thej 
have a great respect 
for antiquity, and 
are proud of their 
writing, they Jiave 
no clear account of 
the origin of their 
written language. 
As has been said, there is evidence to show tliat 
the Chinese brought a knowledge of writing with 
them into China. If this were not so, we should 
expect to find in China inscriptions in the 
most primitive form of writing, which was 
hieroglyphic ; but no such inscriptions exist, 

464 




The Chinese Characters, 465 

showing that the language had already passed 
the purely hieroglyphic stage before its intro- 
duction into the country. Though the Chinese 
brought a knowledge of writing with them, 
it is quite possible that they added to their 
stock of characters by adapting to their own 
purposes the rude lines and marks which 
some of the aborigines used to express their 
thoughts, and of this process we have traces 
in the accounts which the Chinese give of 
the invention of writing. 

The earliest combination of lines of which 
we hear in Chinese works is found in the 
eight diagrams which are said to have been 
drawn by Fuh-he (b. c. 2852-2737). These are 
formed by whole and broken lines drawn al- 
ternately, and have been made the basis of 
an ancient system of philosophy and divina- 
tion; but they have never been read. They 
bear no resemblance to Chinese characters, 
and therefore the statement made in the 
Tsze hed peen of the T'oo shoo tseih chmg^ 
that, "Fuh-he imitated the Kwei writing, and 
made the eight diagrams," is worthy of con- 
sideration in lieu of any better derivation of 
them. What was the Kwei writing? In Ts'ai 



466 The Language, 

Yung's (a. d. 133-192) work on the lesser seal 
characters he says : — '" The Kwei writing was 
written irregularly and comb wise, like a drag- 
on's scales. It hung down like a dropphig 
ear of millet, and was as abstruse as the 
tangled web of insects. Whether in combina- 
tion or not, it was like drops of rain finely 
drawn out and freezing as they fall. Seen 
from a little distance it looks like a flock 
of geese and swans wandering in a continu- 
ous line. However long it is studied, its 
intricacies cannot be reckoned. Seen further 
off, its divisions cannot be distinguished." 

Such was the writing of the Kwei people, 
who were scattered over the district, part of 
which is now known as the Province of 
Honan. This tract of country is bounded on 
the north by the Hwang-ho, Yellow River, 
or, as it used to be called, Ho, or The river, 
and is traversed by the Loh River, which 
empties itself into the Ho. Now, one of the 
commonest expressions used in Chinese books, 
in describing the origin of writing is, that 
writing came from the Loh (Loh slioo), and 
drawings from the Ho (Ho t'oo). The locality 
from which these were derived is, therefore, 



The Ktvei Hieroglyphics. 467 

sufficiently plainly indicated ; the next ques- 
tion is, Who were their authors? 

By common consent, Chinese writers declare 
that Ts'ang Hieli, a minister of Hwang-te (b. 
c. 2697-2597), invented writing, but we are 
also told that Ts'ang Hieh imitated the col- 
ored writing of the Kwer of Loh, and devel- 
oped from it his characters. , This statement 
is repeated over and over again in varying 
forms. Ts'ang Hieh, we are told, looking up 
to heaven and observing the constellations, 
and down to the earth and examining the 
Kwei writing and the footprints af birds, in- 
vented written characters. According to 
tradition, he was a resident in what is now 
Honan, and what more natural, therefore, than 
that he should have imitated the rude attempts 
at writing carved by the Kwei aborigines on 
the banks of the Ho and Loh, and moulded 
them into characters. Though the Kwei 
hieroglyphics were rude, they were yet suffi- 
ciently explicit to be used to record events, 
since, as we are told, during the reign of Yaou, 
when the Yue-clumg people visited the court, 
they brought with them a sacred tortoise 
(Kwei), which was said to have been a 



468 The Language. 

thousand years old, upon whose back was in- 
scribed a legend, which contained a narrative 
of eveuts from the creation downwards. Yaou, 
it is said, ordered this primitive history to 
be transcribed, and called it the " Kwei Annals." 
Again of- the same writing Ts'ai Yung, in 
his work on the large seal characters, says : — 
''The oldest characters were those of the 
Yue-chang people. They consisted of a thou- 
sand varieties, and of ten thousand shapes 
eitlier resembling dragons or fishes. There 
was no phrase which did not occur in them, 
nor was there anything which was not men- 
tioned in them." 

We know, therefore, on the faith of Chinese 
writers of antiquity, that the Kwei used 
characters, and that these were found on the 
banks of the Loh and of the Ho. We are 
further told, in the Shih choiv ke^ that when 
Yu regulated the waters, he employed work- 
men to carve an inscription on a rock, and 
that beneath this inscription were tadpole 
characters which were not such as were writ- 
ten by Chinamen. The Eivang poh wuh die 
tells the same story. 

The probability is, therefore, that Ts'ang 



Phonetic Writing. 469 

Hieh, or one of the early Chinese, did adopt 
as his own the Kwei characters which he 
found on rocks and the banks of rivers and 
very possibly Fuh-he's diagrams may have 
owed their existence to the same origin ; 
but such characters merely supplemented the 
writing which the Chinese originally brought 
with them into China, and we may dismiss, 
therefore, as legendary, the statement that the 
writing ever went through the primitive hiero- 
glyphic stage in China. That had long passed 
away, and had been succeeded by a system 
of phonetic writing, by which the component 
parts of the characters were so arranged as 
to give the sound of the words, which in 
those days were as often as not polysyllabic. 
By degrees, however, as the Chinese colonies 
advanced further and further into the country, 
and separated themselves more and more from 
the headquarters of the race, dialects sprung 
up, differing phonetic values were given to the 
characters and their component parts, and 
consequently things were either called by dif- 
ferent names in different parts of the country, 
or the characters representing them under- 
went a series of gradual modifications as the 



470 The Language, 

origiual pronuDciation of their parts changed. 
Such was the state of things when She 
Chow, the minister of Seuen Wang (b. c. 
827-781), attempted to reimpose a uniform 
system of writing, and for this purpose in- 
vented the " large seal characters " with which 
his name will be for ever associated. The 
project, however, was only partly successful. 
The inevitable laws which govern the growth 
of language are not to be confined witliin 
arbitary limits, and the same process of change 
which had metamorphosed the Koo wan, or 
ancient writing, wrouglit havoc also with the 
large seal characters. This was essentially a 
period of change. The feudal system, which, 
until then liad prevailed in the country, was 
fast disappearing to make wa}- for an empire. 
The rio^ht of the sovereisfus of Chow to the 
supremacy among the states was openly 'ques- 
tioned by feudatories, wlio sought vi et armis 
to usurp their throne. Loj^alty had ceased to 
exist, and might was made the measure of 
right. " The nobles," says Heu Shin, in his 
preface to the Shwo wan^ "ruled by violence, 
and ceased to be controlled by the king; they 
hated rights and music, and did injury to 



The Time of the Empire, 471 

them. Departing from the canonical records, 
they divided the empire into seven states. 
They changed the measurements of the arable 
fields; they changed the wheel-gauge of the 
carriages; they changed the code of the stat- 
utes and commands; they changed the fashions 
of clothes and caps; and they changed the 
sounds of the words and the forms of the 
characters." 

On the establishment of the empire under 
the Ts'in Dynasty, Le Sze attempted again to 
introduce a fixed system of writing, and one 
which should at the same time be less cum- 
brous than the large seal characters. These 
new characters, which were known as Seaou 
ehuen, or " Small Seal " characters, were less 
complicated and not square like the older 
forms ; but as public business and the corre- 
sponding necessity for writing increased, the 
Seaou chuen was voted too elaborate, and tlie 
modified form of character called Le shoo was 
introduced in its stead. In the Le shoo a 
tendency is observable to convert the curves 
of the Seaou chuen into angular strokes, and 
the shapes of some characters, in obedience to 
the changes which bad taken place in their 



472 The Language* 

pronunciation, underwent modifications. To the 
Le shoo and Tsaou shoo, or "running hand," 
succeeded the M'eae shoo (the fourth century) 
of the present day. 

Chinamen are ignorant of the science of 
philology, and lack that power of critical ob- 
servation which might enable them to arrive 
at the true history of their written characters. 
Their tendency has been, therefore, to deal only 
with their later forms, and these they have 
classified and arranged in the six following 
classes: — First, Seang hing, or hieroglyphics, 
which are the primitive characters of the lan- 
guage. Second, Che sze, or characters intended 
to represent ideas to the mind by the posi- 
tion of their parts. Thus a character com- 
posed of parts representing the sun above a 
straight line stands for the dawn. Third, Hwuy 
g, or signs formed by writing two or more 
significant characters to suggest a new idea. 
For instance, the character Sin, "sincere," is 
made up of the signs for "a man" and "words," 
a collocation of ideas which at least speaks 
well for the theoretical morality of the people. 
Another character in this class is Ming, 
"brightness," which is composed of a combi- 



Six Linguistic Forms. 473 

nation of the signs for a star and the moon, 
and is identical with the modern Turkish im- 
perial emblem. Chinese writers say that the 
smaller character of the two is that of the 
sun, but they have forgotten that in the Koo 
wan the characters for sun and star were iden- 
tical in form ; and the fact of its being com- 
pletely overshadowed by the moon is an ar- 
gument against its liaving been originally in- 
tended for the greater light. Fourth, Chuen 
choo^ or characters which, being inverted either 
in form or sound, assume different meanings. 
Thus the character which, when read Ld means 
"pleasure," means music when pronounced yo. 
Fifth, Kea tsieh, or characters having borrowed 
meanings. As an illustration of this class 
Chinese writers adduce the character She.f an 
arrow, which, from the straight course of an 
arrow, has come to signify " direct," " right," 
" a word spoken to the point." Sixth, Keae 
shing^ or Phonetic. The adoption of these 
characters was a cardinal feature in the change 
effected in the writing by She Chow. It is 
seldom in tlie history of nations that a writ- 
ing is found to deteriorate, and nothing proves 
more conclusively that the Chinese characters 



474 The Language, 

were no invention of the people themselves, 
than the fact that the first time they at- 
tempted a modification of them they took a 
step backwards. Up to the time of She Chow 
a well-defined and elaborate system of syllabic 
writing had been in vogue, but in the hands 
of the Chinese reformer this retrograded in 
the direction of ideographic writing, and the 
Keae shing characters were brought into ex- 
istence. These, speaking generall}'^, consist of 
two parts — a phonetic element and an ideo- 
graphic character. The ideographic characters 
in combination with their phonetics form an 
exact parallel with many Egyptian and Assy- 
rian ideophoneties. I have been favored by 
Doctor Birch, of the British Museum, with an 
example in Egyptian, showing precisely the 
same formation in the composition of the char- 
acters and in the respective value of their 
parts, as is seen in the Chinese. Speaking of 
Assyrian hieroglyphics. Sir Henry Rawlinson 
says, " Certain classes of words have a sign 
prefixed or suffixed to them, more commonly 
the former, by which their general character 
is indicated. The names of gods, of men, of 
cities, of tribes, of wild animals, pf domestic 



Significant Suffixes. 



475 



animals, of metals, of months, of the points of 
the compass, and of dignities are thus accom- 
panied. The sign prefixed or suffixed may have 




A CHINESE TEACHER AND PUPIL. 



originally represented a word ; but, when used 
in the way here spoken of, it is believed that 
it was not sounded, but served simply to in- 



476 The Language, 

dicate to the reader the sort of word which 
was placed before it." 

Marking, then, the forces of the two parts 
of the Keae Shing characters, it is easy to 
imagine the way in which She Chow set to 
work to modify, existing characters, and to in- 
vent new ones. We may suppose for instance, 
that a tree to which he wished to give a name 
on paper was known to him colloquially as 
Ma. He would then, in the first place, choose 
a common phonetic possessing that sound, very 
possibly the hieroglyphic ma., ''a horse," and 
would combine with it the ideographic charac- 
ter muTi^ meaning " wood." The reader would 
at once recognize that the new character should 
be read as ma., and the ideographic character 
prefixed would make him aware that it was 
either the name of a tree or of something 
made of wood. 

These ideographic signs, with the addition of 
a few others, have been taken by lexico- 
graphers as offering the best means of classi- 
fying the characters of the language. Two 
hundred and fourteen of such signs have been 
chosen (one or more of which enter into the 
composition of every character in Chinese), 



A Cumbersome System. 477 

under which to arrange the fifty thousand char- 
acters, more or less, of which the language 
consists. As the language is v\dthout an alpha- 
bet, some such system is necessary, and this 
one probably answers as well as any other. 
Most of these radicals or determinatives, as 
they have been variously called, being primi- 
tive characters, are hieroglyphics, and include, 
as might have been expected, " the most re- 
markable objects of nature, such as the sun, 
moon, a river, a mountain, fire, water, earth, 
wood, a stone, etc. ; the chief parts of the 
human body, as the head, the heart, the hand, 
the foot, the eye, the ear, etc. ; the principal 
parts of a house, as the roof, the door, etc. ; domestic 
animals, such as the sheep, the cow, the horse, 
the dog, etc. ; the primary relations of society, 
as father, mother, son, daughter, etc. ; qualities, 
such as great, small, crooked, high, low, long, 
etc. ; and actions, such as to see, to speak, to 
walk, to run, to stop, to enter, to follow, etc. ; 
They are thus admirably adapted to form 
generic terms, and this is the part they 
play in composition." In the dictionaries the 
characters are arranged under each radical, in 
order of the number of strokes of which the 



478 The Language, 

part combined witli the radical is composed. 
For example, under tlie radical miili^ "wood," 
the first character is one in which, only one 
stroke is added to the radical, and the last 
consists, of twentj'-two strokes besides the 
radical. 

That such a cumbersome system of writing 
should have remained unimproved argues a 
strange but characteristic inability of the peojDle 
to advance. And this is noticeable, not only in 
the writing, but in ever}^ institution, and in 
every branch of knowledge. They liave ad= 
vanced up to a certain point — a point to 
which they have been led b}" others — and be- 
yond this they are unable to go. On their 
first arrival in China, the}^ brought with them 
a knowledge of the arts and sciences of the 
West, but, during all the centuries they have 
lived in China, they had added nothing to 
the knowledge they thus possessed. If they 
have moved either way, it has rather been 
backwards, so that their reverence for the wis- 
dom of the ancients is a genuine, though mel- 
ancholy, confession of their national incompe- 
tence. 

Though the characters in the language are 



Double Words. 479 

numerous almost beyond belief, amounting, as 
has been said, to fifty thousand in all, the sounds 
they represent are not numerous in proportion. 
The various dialects differ in the number 
of vocables tliey each possess, but the rich- 
est, that of Canton, contains only about seven 
hundred sounds. It follows, therefore, that 
frequently a number of objects and ideas are 
expressed by the voice by the same sound, 
though, when written on paper, they are each 
represented by a distinct and appropriate char- 
acter. The confusion with which such a sys- 
tem is fraught is mitigated somewhat by the 
constant use in conversation of double words, 
in some cases bearing the same, or nearly the 
same moaning, and in others, being made up, 
when the word used expresses a noun substan- 
tive, by combiiiation with a classifying word 
pointing generally to the leading characteristic 
of the object. " These classifiers bear some 
resemblance to our expressions herd^ head, fleets 
troop .... For example, the word pa, *to 
grasp with the hand,' is used as a classifier 
to precede anj^thing which is held in the hand, 
such as a knife, a spoon, a hatchet, etc. In- 
stead of expressing a knife by yih taou, whicli 



480 The Language, 

might either mean a knife, a small boot, or 
a fringe, the classifier is introduced to show 
which taou is meant, and a speaker would 
say yih fa taou^ literally, 'a grasped knife.' 
In like manner keen^ a 'space,' is used as a 
classifier for houses and enclosures ; kan^ ' a 
root,' for trees, poles, clubs, etc. ; and so on," 

It is difficult to point definitely to the origin 
of the double words referred to above. It is 
possible that they may be survivals of poly- 
syllabic words which, owing to phonetic deca\^, 
have lost their full expression in the charac- 
ters which represent them on paper; but, 
wlmtever their origin, they serve a useful pur- 
pose in defining the meaning of the speaker, 
and in pointing out which of the many words 
having the same sound he intends should 
be understood. For instance, if a Chinaman 
were writing the verb " to see," he would 
write keen; but if he were using the word in 
conversation, lie would say kan keen, which 
would mean, literally, "to look and see," b}' 
which combination he indicates that keen^ " to 
see," is the keen which he means. 

There are other combinations of characters, 
which are unmistakably representations of poly- 



Compound Words. 481 

syllabic ^yords, whether native or foreign, and 
a close examination of any of the dialects 
shows that these words are no inconsiderable 
portion of the entire number. In Pekinese 
these polysyllabic words are very numerous, 
partly owing, no doubt, to the introduction 
of Manchu and Mongolian words into the 
vocabulary, but there are, also, quite enough 
native polysyllabic words to redeem the spoken 
language, at least, from the cliarge of mono- 
S3dlabism. A study of a few pages of Sir 
Thomas Wade's Tzu erh chi is instructive on 
this point. 

There are, however, other combinations of 
characters beside those just mentioned, which 
often add considerably to the difficulty of trans- 
lating Chinese texts. Siich are compound words 
composed of two or more characrers, having 
traditionally acquired meanings to which the 
characters used to express them afford no clue. 
For instance, we find the expression Fit ma, 
which, translated literally, would mean either 
"to help a horse," or "a helping horse," but 
which is invariably used to denote " the son- 
in-law of the emperor." Or, again, the combi- 
nation Heven tang, the first character of which 
31 



482 The Language. 

the dictionaries tell us, means " a kind of 
onion," and the second " a hall," but together 
they have acquired the signification of "a 
mother," from the facts that married women 
carry about them roots of the Heuen^ and that 
the hall is the proper place for the mistress 
of the house. The same remark applies to a 
number of single characters, which, from asso- 
ciation of ideas, have assumed meanings to 
which their primary significations bear no ap- 
parent resemblance. Such a word is yen^ "a 
swallow," which, by a curious coincidence, 
means also "to swallow." A number of others 
might be quoted having "a plurality of signi- 
fications which depend upon their combination 
with other characters, upon the branch of 
science of which the work treats, as also upon 
the period when the same was written." 

Turning to the language, we find that it 
bears all the characteristics of an Ural-Altaic 
origin. As in all such languages, so in Chi- 
nese the subject in every sentence comes first, 
then the verb, which is followed by the com- 
plement direct and the complement indirect. 
In the same way every word which defines or 
modifies another invariably precedes it. Thus 



Chinese Polysyllabic. 483 

the 'adjective precedes the substantive, the ad- 
verb the verb, the genitive the word which 
governs it, and the preposition the word gov- 
erned by it. 

In speaking of the language we must be 
understood to be speaking of it as we now 
find it. Even at the present day it is, as has 
been shown, less purely a monosyllabic lan- 
guage than has generally been supposed, but 
there are evidences that in bygone ages it was 
polysyllabic. We find, for instance, many words 
with aspirates in them, which point to the loss 
of a syllable. For example, such a word as 
K'an leads us to the conclusion that in all 
probability it was originally Kahan. And it 
must be remembered that while there is no 
example on record of a monosyllabic language, 
we are surrounded by evidences of phonetic 
decay in our own as well as in every other 
language. 

For instance, the g in the German words 
hagel and regen disappears in our hail and rain. 
In Greek also the o falls out in the genitive 

of such neuter nouns in og as yevog^ ysveaog^ 

contracted to yevovg. Again, in the Romance 
language, the elision of d and t is very com- 



484 The Language, 

mon ; e.g., French pere^ mere^ for pater and 
mater; SpSe for espede, etc. 

Chinese is, then, a language which, like 
many others, has suffered loss through phonetic 
decay, and, as we now see it, it is equally 
poverty-stricken in a grammatical sense. It is 
without inflexions or even agglutination, and 
there is nothing, therefore, to mark the gram- 
matical value of a word except its position in 
a sentence, since very few words belong abso- 
lutely to one part of speech. The result is 
that the same word is often capable of play- 
ing the. part of a substantive, an adjective, a 
verb, or an adverb; but when tliis is so it 
not unfrequently happens that the transition 
from one part of speech to another is marked 
by a change of tone in the pronunciation. 

To illustrate these rules and this peculiarity 
we will take the word haou, which means " to 
love," ''good," '' excellent," "goodness," "well," 
etc. If then, following the rules laid down 
above, we find it in such a connection as the 
following, Kwei keen ehih kea che haou, we 
recognize it at once as a substantive, since, 
were it an adjective, it would be followed by 
a substantive ; were it a verb, it would be 



The Different Tones, 485 

followed by its complement, and also because 
it follows the substantive chih kea, to which is 
added the particle che^ the sign of the pos- 
sessive case. The sentence should then be 
translated, kwei keen, " to peep and see," chih 
kea che, " the apartments," haou, " excellence ; " 
but in the sentence, Joo, haou haou sih, we 
see by the position of the two haous that the 
first must be a verb, and that the second 
must be an adjective, since it is followed by 
a substantive, with which it forms the direct 
complement of the verb. The meaning of the 
sentence then is Joo, " as when," haou, '' we 
love," haou sih, "excellent beauty;" but, in 
reading this sentence, the dictionaries tell us 
that, having recognized the first haou as the 
verb " to love," it must be pronounced in a 
falling tone of voice, whereas, when it occurs 
as an adjective, a substantive, or an adverb, 
it is sounded in an ascending tone. 

These tones, which add so greatly to the 
difficulty of learning to speak Chinese, vary in 
number in almost every dialect, from the four 
in Pekinese to the eight in Cantonese. In 
his introduction to the Tzu erh chi. Sir Thomas 
Wade, speaking of the four tones in use in 



486 The Language, 

Peking, says : " In the first tone, the upper 
even, it may be enough to observe, the vowel 
sound, whether the word be pronounced quickly 
or slowly, proceeds without elevation or de- 
pression. ... In the second tone, the 
lower even, the voice is jerked, much as when 
in English we utter words expressive of doubt 
and astonishment. In the third tone, the as- 
cending, the sound becomes nearly as abrupt, 
but more resembling what with us would in- 
dicate indignation or denial. In the fourth 
tone, the receding, the vowel sound is pro- 
longed, as it were, regretfullj^ .... The 
sounds of a syllable repeated in the above 
order form a sort of chime which can only 
be learnt by the ear, but which it is not 

difficult to learn We will hazard 

but one parallel for better or for worse. Let 
A, B, C, D be four persons engaged in con- 
versation, and a question be put by B, . re- 
garding the fate of some one known to tliem 
all. I have supposed A to assert his death in 
the first tone ; B to express his apprehension 
tliat he has been killed in the second tone; 
C to scout this suspicion in the third ; and 
D to confirm it sorrowfully in the fourth : 





Cantonese Tones. 




1st tone. 


A. 


Dead. 


2d tone. 


B. 


Killed ? 


3d tone. 


C. 


No! 


4th tone. 


D. 


Yes. 



487 



In Cantonese, in addition to these tones are 
four others having the same "chime," but on 
a lower scale. Many explanations have been 
offered for the existence of the tones in 
Chinese, and, though' they now undoubtedly 
serve the very useful purpose of distinguishing 
the meanings intended by the speaker when 
making use of the same syllable to express 
different things, it is impossible to suppose that 
they were invented with that object. In no 
language in the world has such a refinement 
ever been attempted ; and that they are of 
natural growth and of no artificial origin is 
shown by the facts that they vary in different 
dialects, that they are constantly changing, and 
that they may be said to follow the fortunes 
of the initial and final consonants of the words. 
The most reasonable explanation of their being 
is, then, that they are tlie natural compensa- 
tions necessary to counterbalance the contrac- 
tions caused in the simple and compound 
vocables of the language by that muscular 



488 The Language, 

sloth which belongs to the Chinese people and 
the races in the extreme East more or less 
related to them, as well as to some of the 
African tribes. It is a noteworthy fact that, 
wherever tones are found, there exist also ob- 
vious signs of phonetic decay. 

In the absence of all inflexion, it is, as 
may be imagined, necessary to indicate gender 
and number by prefixes or affixes. The word 
Jin^ for example, is man in its generic sense, 
and to distinguish man from woman it is nec- 
essary to prefix nan^ male, -in the one case, 
and nil, female, in the other. In the same 
way, Kung^ " noble " or " superior," is prefixed 
to denote the male of birds, and moo^ mother, 
to indicate the female. Number is not so 
definitely marked, and as often as not the 
context has to supply the information whether 
one or more is meant. 

The numerals are very simple, seventeen sup- 
plying all the combhiations necessar}^ to reckon 
an}^ number. They begin with yih " one," urh^ 
"two," san^ "three," sze "four," woo^ "five," 
lull, "six," tseiJi^ "seven," pa^ "eight," kew^ 
"nine," sAz'A," "ten." With these numerals 
every number up to a hundred is counted. 



Compliments in Conversation. 489 

Thus ten one is " eleven," and so on to twenty, 
which is expressed by " two tens," etc. ; pih^ is 
" a hundred," tseen^ " a thousand," tvan^ " ten 
thousand," ^i^, "one hundred thousand," chaou^ 
" a million," kingy. " ten millions," and hae " a 
hundred millions." The last four are now very 
seldom employed. The character wan^ as has 
already been pointed out, derives its numerical 
significance from its originally meaning a 
" bee," the numbers in the swarms of these 
insects being past counting. 

As in all Oriental languages, the complimen- 
tary and self-depreciating style of conversation 
used in Chinese, leads to the adoption of a 
vast number of equivalents for the personal 
pronouns. In the personal pronouns themselves 
no distinction of gender is made. Colloquially 
the third person, whether man, woman, or 
thing, is spoken of as Ta^ Ne is the second 
person, and Ngo the first. But in polite con- 
versation it would be considered a breach of 
etiquette either to address one's interlocutor as 
iVg, or to speak of one's self as Ngo. Should 
your friend not be an office-holder, he must be 
addressed as "Master," or "Elder," or "Your 
Honour." Should he be in the junior ranks 



490 The Language. 

of the mandarinate, the law provides that he 
must be addressed as Laou yeh^ or " Old 
Father." If he be above a certain rank, he 
becomes Ta laou yeh^ " Great Old Father ; " 
and the title of Ta jin, " Your Excellency," 
belongs by right to officials in the higher 
grades. Meanwhile, for JVgo is substituted 
such humble expressions as " The little one," 
" The mean one," " The stupid one," or " The 
cheap one." The same kind of phraseology is 
employed in the sense of possessive personal 
pronouns. All that belongs to another is " Hon- 
orable," '' Worshipful," or " August." " Where 
is your honourable abode ? " asks one stranger 
of another. " My unworthy dwelling is at such 
and such a place," is the reply. Another's 
house is ^'an illustrious mansion;" one's own 
is " a vile hovel." One's friend's father is 
" your honoured noble one," and his mother 
"your honoured loving one;" but here re- 
spect for parents steps in and prevents the 
use of any depreciatory terms being applied 
to one's own father or mother. One of the 
commonest complimentar}^ questions put to an 
acquaintance is, " What is your honourable 
age ? " and '* I congratulate you on having ac- 



The Imperial We, 491 

quired wealth," is a usual form of salutation to 
a passing stranger on the road regardless of 
his possible rags and tatters. 

Quite separate and apart from all other forms 
of the first personal pronoun is the expression 
chin^ which is reserved especially for the em- 
peror's use, and has been the imperial " We " 
since the time of Che Hwang-te of the Ts'in 
Dynasty (b. c. 221) ; but not always does he 
feel himself entitled to use this imperial " We." 
In times of national misfortune he chooses to 
believe that his own remissness is the cause 
of the evils which have overtaken the coun- 
try, and then it is customary for him to des- 
ignate himself Kwa jin^ " The unworthy man." 
In addressing the emperor, the ministers speak 
of themselves as " Slaves," or " We who are 
beneath the steps of the throne," in reference 
to the position they are accustomed to occupy 
when receiving imperial orders. '' Prostrate, 
they beseech that the imperial glance may fall" 
on their memorials, and Wan suy yeh^ " Lord 
of ten thousand years," is one of the common 
epithets applied to His Majesty. In letter and 
despatch writing complimentary expressions find 
their fullest development, and if the recipients 



492 The Language. 

of such documents realized the wishes expressed 
for their happiness and advantage, their "abun- 
dant prosperity would flourish and increase," 
" the good fortune which follows on their foot- 
steps would be increasingly magnified," and 
"length of days, riches, and honour would be 
their lot." 

As the verb in common with every other 
part of speech is without inflexion, the force 
of the past and future tenses has either to be 
expressed by the context or by the addition 
of certain prefixes or suffixes. For example, 
in the sentence Kaou-tsoo shih yih neen chu 
Chin-he, " Kaou-tsoo, in the eleventh year (of 
his reign), punished Chin-he," with death, the 
context is sufficient to show that the verb 
choo is in the past tense, and no prefix or 
suffix is necessary. But in the phrase Kin e 
choo Choo-Leu, " Now lie has punished Choo- 
leu with death," the verbal particle e is re- 
quired to mark that the action is past, since 
without it the meaning might be "Now he 
punishes, or will punisli, Choo Leu with death." 
In the literary style, several other particles 
are used to express the past tense, whicli may 
be said to resolve themselves in the colloquial 



Chinese Punctuation, 493 

to the suffixes leaou "to complete," and Kwo 
" to pass over." 

In the same way with the future tense; in 
such a passage as Seen juh Kwan ehay wang 
che, '' He who first enters the Pass shall rule 
over it," the context shows us that wang 
" shall rule " is in the future tense ; but when 
the context fails to point to the time of the 
action, the particle tseang " to take " is some- 
times prefixed to make the meaning clear, as 
in the sentence Ngo tseang wan ehe<, " I will 
(tseang) ask him." In the colloquial the verb 
yaou "to want," is prefixed in place of tseang. 

By similar devices the different moods are 
with more or less distinctness indicated, and 
though it not unfrequently happens that, in 
the absence of added verbal particles, the mood 
and tense of the verb may be a matter of 
uncertainty, yet, speaking generally, the mean- 
ing of the writer becomes plain to the patient 
student. Another difficult}^ is the absence of 
all punctuation in some Chinese books ; but 
even here he is helped by the use of final par- 
ticles which, either as signs of affirmation, 
exclamation, or interrogation, frequently mark 
the close of a period. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



THE LITERATURE. 



N the literature of a civil- 
ized country is reflected 
the national mind. More 
especially is this the case 
with a people so addicted 
to the use of pen, ink and 
paper, as the Chinese. In 
the countless volumes 
which have appeared and 
are appearing from the 
many publishing centres, 
we see mirrored the tem- 
perament of the people, 
their excellencies, their deficiencies, and their 
peculiarities. Abundant evidence is to be 
found of their activity in research and diligence 
in compilation, nor are signs wanting which 

point to the absence of the faculty of imag- 

494 




Grace of Style Wanting. 495 

ination, and to an inability to rise beyond 
a certain degree of excellence or knowledge, 
while at the same time we have displayed the 
characteristics both of matter and manner, 
which most highly commend themselves to the 
national taste. 

As a consequence of the very unplastic 
nature of the language, there is wanting in 
tlie literature that grace of diction and vary- 
ing force of expression which are found in 
languages capable of inflexion and of syntacti- 
cal motion. The stiff angularity of the written 
language, composed as it is of isolated, unas- 
similating characters, robs eloquence of its 
charm, poetry of its musical rhythm, and works 
of fancy of half their power ; but in no way 
interferes with the relation of facts, nor the 
statement of a philosophical argument. Hence 
to all but the Chinese mind, which knows no 
other model of excellence, the poetical and 
fanciful works of Chinese authors offer fewer 
attractions than their writings on history, 
science, and philosophy. Unlike the literatures 
of other countries, one criticism applies to the 
whole career of Chinese letters. It is difficult 
to imagine a nation of busy writers pursuing 



496 The Literature, 

a course of literature for more than three 
thousand years, and yet displaying so little 
progress in thought and style as Chinese au- 
thors have. That their works vary in quality 
no one who has read two Chinese books can 
doubt ; but the variations are within limits, 
and, except perhaps in a few modern works 
in which the effect of European influence is 
observable, the width of thought and power 
of expression have in no wise increased, at 
least, since the revival of letters under the 
Han Dynasty (B.C. 206-A.D. 25). The fragments 
which we have of an earlier literature make 
it difficult to institute a comparison with them. 
We have the nine classics — of which more 
anon — the early Taouist literature, and a few 
scientific works ; but these are all that remain 
to us of the very considerable literature which 
existed in what is now China, prior to that 
period. 

If we were to accept the accounts given us 
by the people themselves, of the origin of 
their literature, we should be compelled to be- 
lieve that it took its rise from the rock in- 
scriptions cut by the Kwei and Ma tribes of 
aborigines on the banks of the Hwang and 



The Most Antique Booh. 497 

Lo rivers, or, as the legend is now understood, 
from the inscriptions brought out from the 
waters of those rivers on the backs of a tor- 
toise (Kwei) and a horse (Ma); but we may 
safely assume that the Chinese not only 
brought a knowledge of writing into China, 
but that they brought also books, and there 
is internal evidence to support the assumption 
that parts of the Yih king^ or Book of 
Changes, the book for which the Chinese claim 
the greatest antiquity, were among these writ- 
ings. That it belongs to a very early period, 
is sufficiently proved by the fact that until 
now the key to its interpretation has been 
entirely lost, and that, though the ablest 
native scholar of all ages, including Confu- 
cius, have attempted to explain it, they have 
one and all failed to offer a satisfactory in- 
terpretation of its pages. That which Chinese 
scholars have been unable to do M. Ter- 
rien de la Couperie has accomplished, and 
instead of being a mysterious depository of 
deep divinatory lore, it turns out to be a 
collection of syllabaries such as are common 
in Accadian literature, interspersed with chap- 
ters of astrological formulae, ephemerides, and 



498 The Literature. 

others dealing with ethnological facts relating 
to the aboriginal tribes of the country ; all 
taking the form of vocabularies, and therefore 
as impossible to be translated in the sense in 
which every commentator, from Confucius down- 
wards, has attempted to translate them as 
Johnson's Dictionary would be. 

The work consists of sixty-four chapters, at 
the head of each of which stands a hexagram 
composed of straight, whole, and divided lines, 
which may very probably have been derived 
fi'om the rock inscriptions of the Kwei and Ma 
tribes. Following each hexagram occur a few 
sentences of the original text, which, however, 
have been largely supplemented by the ortho- 
dox commentaries upon them. The deviser of 
the hexagrams is said to have been Fuh-he 
(b. c. 2852-2737), to whom also the authorship 
of the original text is attributed by some 
critics. The commentaries which are now em- 
bodied with the text are, by common tradition, 
believed to have been the work of WSn Wang 
(b. c. 1231-1135), his son Chow Kung, and 
Confucius. 

The Yih king is, then, the oldest book ex- 
tant in the Chinese language; and in the long 



Light on the Aborigines. 499 

interval which separates it from the Confucian 
period when most of the other early canonical 
works took their present shape, but few works 
appeared of wliich we know more than the 
name. Among those, however, which have 
maintained an existence from a remote period 
are " the San fun^ " the three records " of the 
emperors Fuh-he, Shin-nung and Hwan-te (b. c. 
2852-2597), or rather a portion of it, and 
the Hea seaou ching, or " Calendar of the Hea 
Dynasty," which bears evidence of having been 
written about 2000 B. c. The first of these 
works throws considerable light on the condition 
of the aboriginal tribes at the time of immi- 
gration of the Chinese, and tliough through a 
confusion which has arisen owing to the tribal 
names being read ideographically instead of 
phonetically, it is generally regarded both by 
native and foreign scholars as a collection of 
idle legends, it yet supplies much ethnological 
information of importance. The same remark 
applies, though not to the same extent, to the 
Hea Calendar ; but what is additionally inter- 
esting in this work is the evidence it furnishes 
of the influence exercised upon tlie Chinese 
language by its contact with tongues of a dif- 



500 The Literature. 

ferent morphology. Nothing, as has been stated 
in. the preceding cliapter, is more marked and 
less mutable in Chinese than the construction 
of a simple sentence. As in English the sub- 
ject comes first, then the predicate and, lastly, 
the object; but in the Hea Calendar we find 
the position of the subject and predicate occa- 
sionally reversed, and if any other evidence 
were required to point to such an arrange- 
ment being foreign to Chinese, the remarks of 
the commenters on such passages would supply 
it. Among the signs of the ninth month tlie 
Hea Calendar says Te hung yen^ literally 
" migrate, the wild geese.'' This reversal of 
the recognized order of the words is so con- 
spicuous that the commenters would fain find 
a reason for it; and they can offer no better 
explanation than that the act of emigration 
would probably produce the first effect upon 
the mind of the writer, and afterwards the 
fact that the emigrants were geese, and they 
suggest that the writer's pen would follow the 
order of his thoughts ! 

Though only a few ancient 'works are ex- 
tant, we know from references which the}^ con- 
tain that both the Chinese and the aborigines 



The Book of Odes. 501 

possessed considerable literatures. We have 
the titles of a number of Chinese works which 
would now be invaluable aids to clearing up 
many obscure points in the early history of 
the Chinese and their language ; and we have 
also mention made of Kwei records, and books 
of the Lung, Ma, Pung, Yue-chang, and other 
aboriginal tribes. On all sides there seems to 
have been a certain literary activity. We read, 
for example, of officials being sent at regular 
intervals into different parts of the Chinese 
states to note and collect the various dialec- 
tical differences as they developed, and for 
many centuries it was customary to collect the 
popular songs current in the several principali- 
ties for the purpose, as we are told, of judg- 
ing from them of the character of the rule 
exercised by the princes. In this way three 
thousand odes were collected in the royal 
archives. Of these a careful selection was 
made either by Confucius, as is very generally 
believed, or by one of his contemporaries, which 
now under the title of She Mng^ or " Book of 
Odes," forms the second of the nine classical 
works. The odes, as might be expected from 
the above account of their origin, refer princi- 



502 The Literature. 

pally to local affairs, both political and social. 
The picture they draw of the condition of 
the states is not unfavorable. They teach iis 
that side by side with occasional tyranny, vio- 
lence, and outrage, there existed political 
loyalty and many social virtues, and, in fact, 
that then as now the Chinese were a patient, 
industrious, and law-abiding people. Of their 
poetical value it is difficult to speak, owing to 
the impurity of the text and the changes 
which the characters have undergone in sound. 
By the Chinese the}^ are regarded with re- 
spectful reverence, and endless commentaries 
manifest the interest taken in them. 

The Shoo king, or " Book of History," the 
third of the classical works, also took its 
present shape about the time of Confucius. 
Like the She king, too, it is a compilation, 
and shares with that work the reputation of 
having been edited by Confucius. It is stated 
in the history of the Suy Dynasty, that " Con- 
fucius inspected the documents in the library 
of the state of Chow, and having found the 
records of the four dynasties of Yu, Hea, 
Shang, and Chow (b. c. 2356-700), he preserved 
the best among them and rejected the others. 



Historical Work, 503 

Beginning with Yu and coming down to Chow, 
he compiled altogether a hundred books, and 
made a preface to them." Whether this au- 
thor, who in the above sentence reproduces a 
common belief, was right or wrong in attrib- 
uting the compilation of the records to Con- 
fucius, his account of their nature and scope 
at least is correct. Like everything else in 
ancient Chinese history, the laws for the com- 
pilation of history were minute and definite. 
The historians were court officials, and among 
them were historians of the left hand and 
historians of the right hand. The former were 
charged with the duty of recording imperial 
charges, ministerial speeches, etc., and the lat- 
ter with that of narrating facts. The contents 
of the Shoo king mark that the compilation 
was the work of an historian of the left, since 
they consist only of the speeches and charges 
of the rulers and their ministers. These, and 
especially those contained in the earlier chap- , 
ters, are extremely interesting, and throw con- 
siderable light' on the early history of the 
settlement of the Chinese in China, as well as 
on the scientific knowledge they possessed and 
the religious sentiments they professed. 



504 The Literature. 

As has been already pointed out in the case 
of the language, we have no traces of an early 
growth of either scientific knowledge or re- 
ligious professions among the Chinese in China. 
They step on to the stage as full-grown scien- 
tists, in the Chinese sense, and religionists. 
There is no beginning with the A, B, C, of 
knowledge or religion. That was worked out 
for them by a people in Western Asia, among 
whom they sojourned, and of the results of 
whose toil they possessed themselves. If this 
were not so, it would be startling to read, 
in the first chapter of the Shoo king^ the 
glib utterances of Yaou (2356-2255 B. c.) on 
the subject of the equinoxes and the solstices, 
and the position of the stars. Scarcely less 
sti^iking is the high moral tone which per- 
vades every utterance of sovereign and min- 
ister. No higher system of morality could 
possibly be devised than that which is put 
into the mouths of these men whom, if we 
were to follow the Chinese belief, we should 
be compelled to regard as the pioneers of a 
struggling civilization. Such a conjunction is 
manifestly inconsistent. In the early stages of 
society elevated sentiments find their utterance 



Inconsistent Moral Utterances. 505 

in isolated deeds and inspired expressions, not 
in evenly-maintained and well-thought-out dis- 
courses of a highly moral order. 

Imagine, for example, such sentiments as 
the following, uttered at the dawn of history 
of any nation : — " Yu said, ' If the sovereign 
can realize the difficulty of his sovereignship, 
and the minister can realize the difficulty of 
his ministry, government will be well ordered, 
and the people will sedulously seek to be 
virtuous.' The emperor said, ' Yes ; let this 
really be the case, and good words will no- 
where lie hidden; no man of virtue and tal- 
ents will be neglected away from court; and 
the myriad states will enjoy repose. To ascer- 
tain the views of all, to give up one's own 
opinion and follow that of others, to refrain 
from oppressing the helpless, and not to 
neglect the straightened and poor : — it was 
only the Emperor Yaou who could attain to 
this.'"* 

Either, then, we must imagine that these 
speeches were invented for the speakers many 
centuries after they were supposed to have 
been uttered, or that the Chinese had before 

♦Legge's "Shoo King." Book II. 



506 The Literature, 

they entered China reached the high level at 
which they appear. 

An instance of a work by an historian of 
the right hand is furnished by the one book 
of which we know Confucius to have been the 
author, and in which, under the title of the 
CKun ts'etv^ or " Spring and Autumn Annals," 
he records the history of his native state of Loo 
extending over two hundred and forty-tw"o years. 
This being the undoubted work of the sage, an 
unusual interest at first sight attaches to it, and 
one's expectations are certainly not lessened by the 
statements of the author, and of contemporary 
scholars concerning it. "The world," says 
Mencius, "was falling into decay, and right 
principles had dwindled away. Perverse dis- 
courses and oppressive deeds were again waxen 
ripe. Cases were occurring of ministers who 
murdered their rulers, and of sons who mur- 
dered their fathers. Confucius was afraid, and 
made the CKun Ts^ew'' As soon as it ap- 
peared, we are told that rebellious ministers 
quaked with fear, and undutiful sons were 
overcome with terror. " Its righteous deci- 
sions," said Confucius, "I ventured to make." 

Such statements naturally prepare us to ex- 



Confucius's Oh'un Ts*ew. 507 

pect to find in the CKun Ts'ew a history in 
which the narrative of events would be inter- 
spersed with sage reflections and deep-sighted 
criticisms. We should expect to find praise 
and blame distributed with a severely discrim- 
inating pen, and crimes denounced, and good 
deeds commended, with impassioned earnest- 
ness. But most of all we should expect to 
find the history strictly accurate. On each of 
these points the reader will be disappointed. 
Taking the strictest view of his duty as an 
historian of the right-hand, Confucius confined 
himself entirely to the barest narration of 
facts. Absolutely without a remark or reflec- 
tion, the events are strung together without 
any attempt to point a moral, or to weave 
them together in a connected history. Each 
chapter consists of a number of short para- 
graphs, embodying as many facts, concerning 
which the reader is left to draw his own con- 
clusions. The following, the first chapter, may 
be taken as a specimen of the whole work : 

*' [His] first year [began], in the Spring-reigning first 
month. 

" In the third month the Duke and E-foo of Choo 
made a covenant in Meeh. 



608 The Literature, 

"In summer, in the fifth month, the Earl of Ch'ing 
overcame Twan in Yen. 

" In autumn, in the seventh month, the Heavenly King 
sent the administrator Heuen with a present of carriages 
and horses, for the funerals of Duke Hwuy and his 
[wife] Chung-tsze. 

"In the ninth month [the Duke] and an officer of 
Sung made a covenant in Suh. 

"In winter, in the twelfth month, the Earl of Chai 
came [to Loo]. Kung-tsze Yih-sze died." 

This specimen of the style of the CKun 
Ts'ew makes further remark on the subject 
unnecessary, but something might still be said 
for it, if it were a faithful record ; but even 
here it is found wanting. Facts are notori- 
ously suppressed and misrepresented, but not- 
withstanding this, so great is the faith of the 
Chinese in Confucius that it is enshrined 
among the classics, and has not even yet 
ceased to excite the admiration of his coun- 
trymen.* 

*It is difficult for a European, with his moral training, to appreciate 
the CK'un Ts^ew or to understand the admiration that has existed for it 
among the Chinese for twenty-five centuries. Its apparent inaccuracies or 
wilful perversions of the truth are a part of the author's plan to shield 
the vices and wickednesses of sovereigns of his state, of whom, accord- 
ing to his creed, no evil should be uttered. To a Chinese, the specimen 
in the text seems rather a travesty than a translation, for the delicate 
shades of meaning and the position of the words in the original, which 



The Book of Rites. 509 

The fifth of the Five King which, with the 
Four Shoo, make up the nine classics, is the 
Le ke, or *'Book of Rites," As in the case 
of the majority of the ancient books, its au- 
thorship is uncertain, but it is generally at- 
tributed to the Duke of Chow, in the twelfth 
century B. C. As its name implies, it deals 
with the rites and ceremonies of the nation, 
and so minute is it in detail, that it provides 
not only for courtly pageants and royal pro- 
cedure, but for the every-day social and do- 
mestic relations and duties of the people. At 
the present day it is still the ultimate court 
of appeal in all doubtful ceremonials, and one 
of the six governing boards at Peking — the 
Board of Rites — is especially charged with 
the duty of seeing its precepts carried out 
throughout the empire. Speaking of this 
work. Gallery says: — "In ceremonial is sum- 
med up the whole soul of the Chinese, and 
to my mind the ' Book of Rites ' is the most 
exact and complete monograph that this na- 

give a clew to the moral nature of the act are lost in the English rendering. 
The author only echoes the sentiments of Dr. Legge in his misjudgment 
of the philosopher. The commentaries on the CA'un Ts'ew, written some 
time after it, explain and unfold the principles by which Confucius was 
guided in writing it, and no Chinese is deceived by it. 



510 The Literature. 

tion can give of itself to the rest of the 
world. Its affections, if it has any, are sat- 
isfied by ceremonial ; its duties are fulfilled 
by means of ceremonial. Its virtues and vices 
are recognized by ceremonial ; the natural re- 
lations of created beings are essentially con- 
nected with ceremonial ; in a word for it 
ceremonial is man, the man moral, tlie man 
politic, and the man religious, in their num- 
berless relations with the family, society, the 
state, morality, and religion." 

Such was the existing literature at the time 
of Confucius, and so great was the influence 
of his teachings and opinions, that almost im- 
mediately after his death, the Five King, all 
of which had received his imprimatur, and one 
of which, as has been said, was actually 
written by him, were generally accepted as con- 
taining the true basis of all knowledge and 
morality. To these were added four books 
which were subsequently written by the , dis- 
ciples and followers of the sage, viz., the 
Taheo^ or "Great Learning;" the Chung yung^ 
or " the Doctrine of the JNIean ; " the Lun yu, 
or " Confucian Analects ; " and the Mang-tsze, 
or the "Works of Alencius." The first three 



The Great Mencius, 



511 



directly embody the teachings of Confucius, and 
the fourth those of his great successor, Mencius. 
Through all succeeding ages these nine works 
have been regarded as the sum total of all 
wisdom ; they have been the primary objects 
of study of every succeeding generation of 
scholars; their texts have been commented on 
until almost every word has been the subject 




CHINESE STREET AMUSEMENTS. 



of minute criticism, and through the many 
centuries, during which competitive examina- 
tions have been in vogue, they have formed 
the principal subjects for examination. 

Notwithstanding that this foundation of a 
national literature had been laid, little of im- 
portance was added to it during the centuries 
which immediately succeeded the time of Con- 



512 The Literature, 

fucius. Literature, like every other art, re- 
quires congenial surroundings, that it may flourisii 
and grow. Peace and freedom of thought are 
as essential to its well-being as turbulence and 
political uncertainty are destructive of it. Un- 
fortunately, the disorder in and the rivalries 
between the Chinese states, which Confucius 
had striven to avert, increased in virulence 
after his death. On all sides were wars and 
rumors of wars, government had ceased to ex- 
ist, and all rights, whether political or social, 
were trodden under foot by armed men. At 
such a time scholars were not likely to gain 
a hearing, and beyond some dissertations on the 
classics, and commentaries on, and musings 
consequent on Laou-tsze's Taou tih king^ or 
Sutra of Reason and Virtue, which appeared 
probably in the lifetime of Confucius, little was 
written which needs mention. 

Even the restoration of peace and the estab- 
lishment of an empire under She Hwang-te 
(b. c. 221-209), far from advancing the cause 
of letters, brought about the greatest calamity 
that has ever befallen a national literature. 
By the advice of his ministers, in order to 
build up his empire on a tabula rasa, She 



Destruction of Boohs. 518 

Hwang-te ordered the destruction by fire of 
all books except those of his native state, and 
works on medicine and divination. How great 
was the destruction caused by this enactment, 
we shall never know; but as it could only 
be put in force within the area of the Chi- 
nese principalities, it is probable that the litera- 
ture current in the outlying states escaped 
the flames, but all the works which had been 
collected in the state libraries during the Chow 
Dynasty relating to the history, science, and 
art of the people ; all the works on the dia- 
lectical differences and variations of the lan- 
guage ; and all the records of and in the 
Koo wan perished at the hands of the ex- 
ecutioner. 

As if every change in the condition of the 
empire was to be equally hostile to literature, 
the contest which brought about the fall of 
the short-lived Dynasty of She Hwang-te (b. c. 
221-206) ended with the sack and burning 
of the capital, when the flames, we are told, 
raged among the palaces and public buildings 
for the space of three months. Thus the 
probability is that most of the books which 
were exempted from the flames fired by She 



514 The Literature, 

Hwang-te perished in the conflagration which 
heralded the overthrow of his successor. 

No sooner had Kaou-tsoo, the founder of the 
Han Dynasty, shown a disposition to encourage 
letters than phoenix-like the old literature rose 
from its ashes. From the walls of houses, from 
caves in the mountains, and even from the 
beds of rivers, the people produced their 
literary treasures which had been hidden away 
until the tyranny of She Hwang-te should be 
overpassed. What these sources failed to re- 
produce, old men came forward to supply from 
their well-stored memories, and thus were kept 
alive the torches which had been lighted by 
the genius of by-gone writers. 

" After the death of Confucius," says the 
historian of this period, " there was an end to 
his exquisite words ; and when his seventy 
disciples had passed away, violence began to 
be done to their meaning." Thus it came 
about that there were five different editions 
of the " Spring and Autumn Annals," four of 
the '' Book of Odes," and several of the " Book 
of Changes." Amid the disorder and collision 
of the warring states (b. c. 480-221), truth and 
falsehood were still more in a state of war- 




AT BREAKFAST. 



515 



Collecting the Books. 517 

fare, and a sad confusion marked the words 
of the various scholars. Then came the cal- 
amity inflicted upon the Ts'in Dynasty, when 
the literary monuments were destroyed by fire, 
in order to befool the ' black heads ' (z.e., 
the people). But the Han Dynasty arose, and 
reversed the ruin wrought by Ts'in, and care- 
fully gathered together the (bamboo) slips and 
tablets, and threw wide open the way for 
the bringing in of books. In the time of the 
Emperor Heaou-wu (b. c. 139-86), portions of 
books being wanted and tablets lost, so that 
ceremonies and music were suffering great 
damage, he was moved to sorrow, and said, 
'- 1 am grieved at this : ' and forthwith he 
formed a plan of repositories in which the 
books might be stored ; and he further ap- 
pointed officers to transcribe all works of the 
various scholars, and directed that the manu- 
scripts thus obtained should be placed in the 
repositories. The Emperor Ch'ing (b. c. 31-6), 
finding that a portion of the books were still 
dispersed and missing, commissioned Ch'in Nung, 
the superintendent of guests, to search for un- 
discovered books throughout the empire, and 
by special edict ordered the chief of the ban- 



518 The Literature, 

qiieting-house, Lew Heang, to examine the 
classics, together with the commentaries on 
them, the writings of the scholars, and all 
poetical works ; the guardian of the city gates, 
Jin Hwang, to examine the books on the art of 
war ; the grand historiographer, Jin Heen, to ex- 
amine the books on divination ; and the imperial 
physician, Le Ch'u-kwo, to examine the books 
on medicine. As soon as a work was completed. 
Lew Heang arranged it, indexed it, and made 
a digest of its contents, which' was presented 
to the emperor. While the undertaking was 
in progress Lew Heang died, and the emperor 
Gai (B. c.-A. D.) appointed his son Hin, a master 
of the imperial carriage factory, to complete 
his father's work. On this Lew Hin collected 
the books, and presented a report of them 
nnder seven categories, viz. : 1st., General 
Resumes ; 2d, the Six Arts ; 3d, Philosophi- 
chI Works; 4th, Poetry; 5th, Military Works; 
6th, Mathematics; and 7th, Medicine. 

In this way were collected 3,123 sections on 
the classics, 2,705 on philosophy, 1,318 on 
poetry, 790 on military matters, 2,528 on mathe- 
matics, and 868 on medicine. Strange stories 
are told of the way these treasures were up- 



Concealed Books Discovered. 519 

earthed. The text of four of the classics, to- 
gether with a work on filial piety, were found 
concealed in the walls of the house which liad 
been Confucius's ; but so long and dark had 
been the night whicli had settled down on 
the literature of the country since the time of 
the sage, that these recovered works were un- 
intelligible to all but a few ripe scholars. By 
these, however, they were transcribed, and 
were eagerly studied by the people. The im- 
petus given to literature by these discoveries 
was prodigious. It was as though in the long 
period of apparent sterility men's minds had 
been gaining depth and force preparatory to 
the first appearance of spring after the long 
winter of their discontent. In Sze-ma Tseen, 
the Herodotus of China, as he has been called, 
and Pan Koo, the historian of the Han Dy- 
nasty, history found exponents who have never 
been surpassed in China, either before or since, 
for arrangement of material and comprehensive- 
ness of detail. On philosophical subjects the 
writers of this period, among whom the names 
of Kea E. Lew Gan, Yang Heung, and others, 
stand conspicuous, are pre-eminent at the pres- 
ent day; and in the light literature of the 



620 The Literature, 

time was established a style which became 
a model for all subsequent ages. Tales of the im- 
agination then first found their expression on 
paper, and in the festive poems of the wine- 
bibber, philosopher, and musician, Ts'ai Yung, 
are foreshadowed the wine-extolling poems of 
Too Foo and other poets of the T'ang Dy- 
nasty. 

From this period the tide of literature has 
flowed onward in an ever-increasing volume, 
checked only, every now and then, by one of 
those signal calamities which have from time to 
time overtaken the " imperial libraries of China. 
In times of political tumult the capital for the 
time being has not once nor twice been burnt 
to the ground with its palaces and libraries: 
but it is noteworthy that however ruthlessly 
on such occasions these intellectual centres have 
been destroyed, one of the first acts of the 
successful founders of succeeding dynasties has 
been to restore them to their former complete- 
ness and efficiency. 

Though, as has been said, the works of the 
ancients were the foundation of all succeeding 
literature, and though, therefore, the same main 
lines have been observed through all subse- 




CROCODILE POINT, SI-KIANG RIVER. 



Divisions of Chinese Literature. 523 

quent ages, certain prominence has under differ- 
ent dynasties been given to particular branches 
of letters. Historical and philosophical research 
marked the Han period ; under the T'ang Dy- 
nasty there arose generations of elegant prose 
and brilliant verse writers, at the bidding of 
whose pencils the angularity of the language 
yielded to their well-turned periods, and the 
short, formal lines of the earlier poetry were 
exchanged for more musical and plastic verses. 
Under the Sung Dynasty philosophy again lield 
sway, while dramatic writings distinguished the 
succeeding Mongol Dynasty, and during the 
Ming D^masty arose that desire to compile 
encyclopsedias which has been so marked dur- 
ing the last four centuries. Of late years, 
however, there has been displayed a keenness 
of research and power of independent criticism 
which will give the present period a promi- 
nent place in Chinese literature. 

The Chinese divide their literature into four 
divisions, viz., classical, philosophical, historical, 
and belles-lettres. Of the nine classics we have 
already spoken ; but though they alone are 
styled King^ or classics, they form but the 
nucleus of the immense mass of literature 



524 The Literature. 

which has gathered round them. Unfortunately, 
the remarkable industrj^ which has served to pro- 
duce this huge literature, has been too often 
misdirected. The Chinese are singularly want- 
ing in real critical ability. They will split 
straws about an expression, and find fifty 
reasons for supporting an opinion, however 
absurd it may be ; but they are incapable of 
genuine antiquarian research, and are equally 
incapable of judging of the true value of facts. 
This, coupled with the loss of the original 
texts of the classics — for it will be remem- 
bered that the latest of them was written in 
a character which had undergone two very 
marked changes, before it assumed its present 
form — has robbed most of what they have 
written of any value. In matters on which 
history can throw light, the remarks of the 
commentators are often apposite, but it is ob- 
vious that where the entire text is misunder- 
stood, " from the egg to the a[)ples," as in 
the Yih hing^ or where it is corrupt, as in the 
She king^ there is abundant room for the 
career of any hobbyhorse and the flight of 
any fancy. Wonderful things have been evolved 
from the Yih king ; but it was reserved for 



Historical Compositions, 625 

a learned Chinaman of the present day to 
see in Confucius's mention of the Yang and 
Yin^ or the male and female principles of Na- 
ture, a direct reference to positive and nega- 
tive electricity. 

The historical compositions of China form the 
most important branch of the national litera- 
ture. Bearing in mind that the ancients con- 
sidered that an historian of the left hand to 
record speeches, charges, etc., and an historian 
of the right to record facts, were all that 
were necessary to compile history, writers have 
generally confined themselves to the lines thus 
traced out for them. Following the example 
of Confucius in the Spring and Autumn An- 
nals, they have refrained from all reflections, 
drawn no inferences, and abstained from even 
remarks. By so much is the reader probably 
benefitted, since the historian is not tempted 
to distort events in order to support a favor- 
ite theory, and the student is left to draw his 
own inferences from a plain statement of facts. 
The She ke, or " Historical Record," by Sze- 
ma Ts'een, and the ITan shoo^ or " Histor}- of 
the Han Dynasty," by Pan koo, are tlie mod- 
els upon which all future histories have been 



526 The Literature* 

written. First come the Imperial Records, 
which contain the purely political events of 
each reign. Then follow sections on chronol- 
ogy, rites and music, jurisprudence, political 
economy, state sacrifices, astronomy, elemental 
influences, geography, literature, biographies, 
and records of the neighboring countries. 

On all these subjects they contain an immense 
store of valuable and varied information, and 
considering that the history of each dynasty 
is published during the following one, they dis- 
play an impartiality and absence of bias which is 
in every sense admirable. The plan of dividing 
the histories into sharply -defined sections, while 
possibly in some instances convenient, gives a 
disjointed air to the compilations, and neces- 
sitates a considerable amount of repetition, 
since in the biographical portions, for example, 
events are necessarily narrated which had already 
appeared in the Imperial Records, and in the 
same way chronology, astronomy, and literature 
frequently trench on each other's special domains. 
Notwithstanding these imperfections, the " Twen- 
ty-four Imperial Histories " of as many dynasties 
form a worthy monument of the indefatigable 
industry of the imperial historiographers. As 



Topographical Works. 527 

to their accuracy, it is very difficult to speak 
with any degree of certainty, as there are al- 
most no published authorities by which it 
would be possible to verify the statements they 
contain. Large portions of Sze-ma T'seen's 
history have no surer basis than tradition. 
Much of its contents deal with a period when 
written records were of uncertain value, and 
which, if existing at the time of Sze-ma Ts'een, 
must have been wholly or in part unintelli- 
gible to him, but beginning with Pan Koo's 
history of the Han Dynasty (b. c. 206 - A. d. 
25) down to the history of the last, or Ming 
Dynasty, which came to an end in 1644, the 
annals have been based on the imperial records, 
and though accuracy is not a virtue generally 
displayed by Chinese authors, they may fairly 
be accepted as generally correct. 

A geographical counterpart to these dynastic 
histories is found in the topographies which 
are officially published of each province, each 
prefecture, each department, and each district, 
throughout the empire. In these publications, 
also, a systematized plan of arrangement is 
followed, and their contents are, with excep- 
tions, classified under twenty-four headings, 



528 The Literature, 

viz : — 1. A table of the changes which the 
district to be described has undergone during 
the successive dynasties, from the Han down- 
wards. 2. Maps. 3. A list of the distances 
from the various places to the chief towns of 
the department. 4. Astronomical bearings of 
the district.^ 5. Its ancient geography. 6. Its 
geographical position, and notable localities. 

7. Manners and customs of the inhabitants. 

8. Fortified places. 9. Colleges and schools. 
10. The census of the population. 11. Tlie 
taxes on land. 12. Mountains and rivers. 13. 
Antiquities. 14. Means of defence. 15. Bridges. 
16. Dykes. 17. Tombs and monuments. 18. 
Temples and ancestral halls. 19. Buddhist and 
Taouist temples. 20. Biographies of patriotic 
native officials, from the time of the Han 
Dynasty downwards. 21. Celebrated men and 
things. 22. Illustrious women. 23. Saints and 
immortals. 24. Products of the soil. 

Here, again, the same evils result from the 
division of subjects as has been noticed in 
the histories. There is a great assemblage of 
isolated detail, but no general view. Dry 
statistics and bald, unconnected facts meet 
one at every turn, but there is no description of 



Biographical Works. 529 

the lay of the land or general aspect of the 
country or the appearance of the towns. The 
power of such description does not accord with 
the narrow train of thought, resulting from 
the Chinese system of education. Detail is 
dear to the Chinese mind, but accurate gener- 
alization is beyond it. This is plainly shown 
in the inability of Chinamen to draw a map. 
Set down to draw a town, or a mountain, or 
a village, they may be trusted to do it cor- 
rectly ; but, if told to draw a map of the 
tract of country in which these are situated, 
and to place them in their true, relative 
positions, they are at once at fault. It is 
this that makes Chinese maps so untrustworthy, 
and valueless as guides to travellers. 

Besides these topographies, there are copious 
works on the water-ways of China, the rivers 
of Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, and of the 
outlying dependencies of China, from the Great 
Wall to Kuldja and Kashgaria, and from 
Szechuen to the frontiers of India. These 
possess the same excellencies, and the same 
faults, as the topographies. 

Biographies form a considerable section under 

the general heading of histories. Among the 
84 



530 The Literature. 

Chinese there exists the same desire to add 
that " new terror to death " which among our- 
selves is represented by "Lives." Statesmen 
of eminence, literary men who have gained 
notoriety, Buddhist or Taouist priests who have 
died in the odor of sanctity, all find those 
who are eager to make the nation share their 
appreciation of the virtues of the dead. 

Chronology and catalogues are also favorite 
themes of Chinese authors and compilers. 
Their early knowledge of astronomy, and of 
the sexagenary cycle, has given them the means 
of calculating times and seasons back to a 
very early date ; but, as with the catalogues, the 
chronolo'gies belong to the modern phase of the 
literature, when compilation came to be preferred 
to original authorship. The Chinese are great 
bibliophiles and antiquaries, and in the houses 
of the wealthy and educated classes there are 
often to be found valuable libraries and museums. 
The catalogues of the most celebrated of these 
have been published, and give a good general 
idea of the literary and antiquarian treasures 
existing in the empire. The largest and most 
celebrated literary catalogue is that published 
by order of the Emperor K'een-lung of the 




t:iiiXE.si; sce.\i:rv near ii a-ncjax, 



5.11 



Catalogue Work, 633 

contents of the imperial library. This work, 
which is entitled Kin ting sze koo tseuen shoo 
tsung muh^ " A catalogue published by imperial 
order of all the books in the four treasuries 
(z.e., classics, history, philosophy, and belles- 
lettres) of literature." In this work, which 
consists of two hundred volumes, there are 
appended to the titles of the works short epit- 
omes of their contents. 

The philosophy of China mainly relates to 
the art of government, and proceeds, except in 
the writings of a few heretics, on the lines 
laid down by Confucius and Mencius. Man's 
nature, according to the orthodox view, is in 
its origin entirely good, and its natural course 
is along the paths of virtue. From these paths 
it is only induced to stray by evil example 
and influences. In the absence of these seduc- 
tive lures it advances in spotless purity, until 
virtue becomes so confirmed a habit that it 
is proof against all attacks of evil. The ob- 
ject, therefore, of a ruler should be, to keep 
his people in a state of primitive simplicity, 
and, by the force of his own example, by 
the promotion to places of honor onl}^ of men 
of virtuous lives, and by rigid adherence to 



534 The Literature. 

the laws of social order, to cultivate that 
nature which is the heaven-sent gift to every 
man, by the firm establishment of which man 
reaches a secure perfection. 

Such were the views of the leading philoso- 
phers of the Han and Sung Dynasties, of 
Ch'ing Haou, Ch'ing E, and Choo He; but 
taking this view of man's nature, the question 
naturally suggests itself: — Whence, then, is 
the source and prevalence of evil? To this 
point Choo He (A. D. 1130-1200) addressed 
himself, and expounded his theories on the 
subject in numerous treatises. He opposed 
himself strenuously to the theory, held by a 
school of philosophers led hj Seun, that the 
nature of man was evil, and adopting a mid- 
dle course, between that and the theory of 
the orthodox Confucianists, that the nature of 
man was perfectly good, he taught that good 
and evil were present in the heart of every 
man, and that, just as in nature a duality of 
powers is necessary to the existence of nature 
itself, so good and evil are inseparably present 
in the heart of every human being. 

It is sometimes difficult to understand the 
systems of classification pursued by the Chi- 



Chinese Classification, 535 

nese, and by what process of reasoning they 
include works on agriculture, astronomy, and 
the arts, encyclopgedias and essays, under the 
head of philosophy, it is impossible to say. 
Agriculture, being a pursuit which is regarded 
with peculiar veneration, as being productive 
of the food of man, has found many exponents 
on paper, and imperial authors have not thought 
it derogatory to describe the processes of 
ploughing, of seed-time and harvest. In two 
well-known works by the Emperor K'een-lung, 
every act of the farmer in the cultivation of 
rice, from the time that he first turns the 
soil with his buffalo-drawn plough to the time 
when he threshes out the grain, and every 
act in the cultivation of silk, from the first 
stage of the silk-worm to the weaving of 
pieces of silk, are described by engravings 
and verses of poetry. 

Astronomy has from time immemorial been 
a favorite study with the Chinese, and the 
literature of the science is large. Their knowl- 
edge of this subject, which is of Chaldean 
origin, is considerable, though not profound. 
It has enabled them to calculate eclipses and 
to recognize the precession of the equinoxes, 



536 The Literature. 

but it has left them with confused views 
on subjects which are matters of common 
knowledge among western peoples. The earth, 
according to their notions, is flat, immovable, 
and square, measuring about one thousand ^wq 
hundred miles each way. The sun, the diam- 
eter of which is three hundred and thirty-three 
miles, stands at a distance of four thousand 
miles above it, but considerably below the 
sidereal heaven, the distance of which from 
the earth has been found, by " the method 
of right-angled triangles," to be 81,394 le (3 
le equal to 1 mile), thirty paces, five feet, three 
inches, and six tenths of an inch ! The months 
and seasons are determined by the revolution 
of Ursa Major. The tail of the constellation 
pointing to the east at nightfall announces the 
arrival of spring, pointing to the south the 
arrival of summer, pointing to the west the 
arrival of autumn, and pointing to the north 
the arrival of winter. This means of calcu- 
lating the seasons becomes more intelligible, 
when it is remembered that in ancient times 
the Bear was much nearer to the north pole, 
and revolved round it like the hand of a clock. 
Scarcely inferior in bulk to the literature 



Literature of Medicine and Art. 537 

of astronomy is that of medicine. Here, again, 
the knowledge of the Chinese lacks a scientific 
basis, and their practice is purely empirical. 
Of surgery they know little, and their diagnoses 
of diseases are quite primitive. One of the 
most celebrated medical works is the " Golden 
Mirror of Medicine," which was published by 
a commission appointed by the Emperor K'een- 
lung. It consists of ninety books, and con- 
tains, besides several entire works of note, a 
large assemblage of prescriptions by celebrated 
physicians, and full directions for understand- 
ing aright the indications furnished, and imag- 
ined to be furnished, by the pulse. 

On drawing and painting much has been 
written, and the books on this subject present 
a very interesting study. They lay bare the 
secrets of the art, and place us en rapport 
with the feelings and intentions of the artists. 
Of no country in the world, with tlie excep- 
tion of China and Japan, would it probably 
be correct to say this; but Chinese and Jap- 
anese art, for they are one and the same, are 
mainly mechanical. The graceful bamboo 
sketches which appear to be traced with such 
individual freedom, the birds, the trees, the 



538 The Literature, 

picturesque landscapes, etc., all of which seem 
to be the result of inspiration, are, after all, 
drawn according to fixed rules and after long- 
continued practice from authorized models. 
Every Chinese picture is explained, if seen in 
the light of such works as the Leih tai ming 
hwa ke^ and we realize the fact that there is 
nothing new under the sun in Chinese drawing 
and painting. 

During the Sung Dynasty (A. D. 960-1127) 
Chinese literature reached its high-water mark. 
The writings of authors of that period are dis- 
tinguished for originality, research and elegance. 
From that time there has, until quite lately, 
been a marked decline. Men have given up 
thinking for themselves, and, instead of seek- 
ing new fields of knowledge, they have studied 
only how to reproduce the results gained by 
others. One symptom of such a decline in a 
nation's literary career is the appearance of 
encyclopaedias of ready-made knowledge. It is 
always easier to remember than to think ; and 
the state of mind which led to the produc' 
tion of such compendiums is likely rather to 
content itself with memorizing results than to 
step out on the thorny paths of knowledge. 



Encyclopcedias, 539 

The first work which really deserves the 
name of encyclopsedia is the Wan keen tung 
kaou, which was compiled by Ma Twan-lin in 
the fourteenth century. It consists of three 
hundred and forty-eight books, and contains 
a resume of the existing knowledge of the 
government, history, literature, religion, and lan- 
guage, as well as of the colonial and tributary 
states, of the empire. " One cannot cease to 
admire," says R^musat, " the depth of research 
which the author was compelled to make in 
order to collect his materials, the sagacity he 
has shown in the arrangement of them, and 
the clearness and precision with which he 
has presented this multitude of objects in 
every light." With some qualification this 
praise is fairly earned b}^ the compiler of this 
immense work, but, like most of his confrater- 
nity, he lacks accuracy. His references are 
often faulty, and in all cases it is necessary 
to turn to the passage quoted to verify 
his readings. A century later, the Emperor 
Yung-lo determined to signalize his reign by 
the publication of an encyclopaedia, which was 
intended to throw Ma Twan-lin's undertaking 
into the shade. An imperial commission, con- 



540 The Literature, 

sisting of upwards of two thousand members, 
was appointed to carry out the work, and at 
the end of four years they were able to re- 
port to the emperor the completion of" their 
labours, which were represented by an ency- 
clopaedia in twenty-two thousand nine hundred 
and thirty-seven books. Whether the difficulty 
and expense of printing so huge a compila- 
tion were considered to be insurmountable, or 
whether the emperor had grown tired of his 
project, history does not tell us, but for some 
reason the MS. was never sent to press, and 
was allowed to lie barren and useless in the 
imperial library, where such portions of it as 
have not moulded into dust remain to this 
day. 

Three centuiies later, K'ang-he (1612-1723), 
the second emperor of the present Manchoo 
Dynasty, conceived the idea of renewing Yung- 
lo's project, and like that emperor he ap- 
pointed a commission to give effect to his de- 
sign. Their orders were simple, though their 
work was colossal. It was required of them 
that they should extract from every work of 
authority, from the Yih king downwards, all 
passages bearing on the six thousand one hun- 




A CHINESE GEXTLEMAN 



Forty Years' Work, 543 

'dred and nine headings, which it was the will 
of K'ang-he should be illustrated. For forty 
years the commissioners toiled. Meanwhile K'ang- 
he " became a guest on high," and his son, 
Yung-ching, had been five years upon the 
throne when the weary commissioners were 
able to write " Finis " on the last page of 
the 5,020th volume of the Kin ting koo kin 
t'oo shoo tseih ching^ " Imperially ordered com- 
plete collection of ancient and modern litera- 
ture, with illustrations." Tradition says that 
only a hundred copies of this work were 
printed. However this may be, the copies is- 
sued were few in number, and were all dis- 
tributed as imperial presents among princes of 
the blood and the highest officials in the em- 
pire. It was thus many years before a copy 
found its way into the market, and it has 
only been in obedience to stern pecuniary pres- 
sure that of late two or three copies have 
been offered for sale at Peking by the de- 
scendants of the original recipients. Fortu- 
nately, through the instrumentality of the late 
Mr. Mayers, Her Majesty's Chinese Secretary 
of Legation, one of these copies was secured 
for the trustees of the British Museum, who. 



544 The Literature* 

when the prevalence in China of the agencies 
destructive of libraries — fire, carelessness, thieves, 
and insects — is remembered, may very proba- 
bly before many years prove to be the onh^ 
possessors of a complete copy of this rare and 
valuable work. 

In arranging their materials, the commission- 
ers adopted six general categories, which they 
sub-divided into thirty-two sections, as follows : 
Categories — 1. The Heavens , 2. The Earth ; 
3. Mankind ; 4. Inanimate nature ; 5. Phil- 
osophy ; and 6. Political economy. Sections 
— 1. The heavenly bodies; 2. The calendar; 
3. Astronomy and mathematical science ; 4. 
Astrology ; 5. The earth ; 6. The dominions 
of China ; 7. The topography of the empire ; 

8. The frontier nations and foreign countries; 

9. The imperial court ; 10. Tlie imperial build- 
ings ; 11. Official institutes; 12. Domestic laws; 
13. Private relationships ; 14. Genealogy and 
biography ; 15. Mankind ; 16. Womankind ; 17. 
Arts and divination ; 18. Religion and phe- 
nomena ; 19. The animal kingdom ; 20. The 
vegetable kingdom ; 21. Canonical and general 
literature ; 22. Education and conduct ; 23. 
Belles-lettres ; 24. Etymology ; 25. The official 



IfJssay Writing. 545 

examination system ; 26. The sj^stem of official 
appointments ; 27. Articles of food and com- 
merce ; 28, Ceremonies ; 29. Music ; 30. Mili 
tary organization ; 31. Administration of justice 
and 32. Handicrafts. 

These headings sufficiently describe the scope 
of the work, which contains very little original 
matter, but consists as designed by K'ang-he, 
of literary extracts bearing on each subject, 
which are arranged in chronological order, so 
that the reader has laid before him the col- 
lective wisdom of every writer of note on the 
subject of his study. The accuracy of the 
quotations forms a marked contrast to all 
other works of a similar kind, and we have 
therefore collected in one thesaurus a trust- 
worthy and exhaustive r^sum^ of Chinese lit- 
erature. 

Next to a knowledge of the classics essay- 
writing is the most important aim of educa- 
tion in China. It is by essays that the de- 
grees are mainly determined at the competitive 
examinations, and it is as essayists that men 
win the highest renown in the field of litera- 
ture. According to the cut-and-dried model 

upon which every essay should be framed, 
36 



546 The Literature, 

tlie writer, after stating his theme, gives a 
short " analysis " of it, and then an " ampli- 
fication " in general terms. Next follow an " ex- 
planation " with a postscript, the " first argu- 
ment," a "re-assertion of the theme," the "second 
argument," and the " third argument." These 
last divisions are more formal than real, and 
it is difficult to see any difference in the 
subject-matter between the first, second, and 
third arguments ; but the inexorable laws of 
essay-writing, confirmed by centuries of habit, 
have made their outward observance indispen- 
sable ; and a competitor at an examination 
would as soon dream of throwing doubt on the 
wisdom of Confucius as of disregarding them. 
As has already been said, the themes given at 
the examinations are invariably texts taken 
from the canonical books. Competitors know, 
therefore, the style and drift of the texts on 
which they will have to write, but they find 
further help in the immense quantity of suc- 
cessful essays which are constantly published. 
These, with the essays by celebrated writers, 
which are to be found in their collected wprks, 
form quite a literature. Unfortunately the cir- 
cumstances of their production, and the preju- 



Poetry before Prose. 647 

dices which surround their authors, rob thera 
of that freedom of expression and breadth of 
tliought which might be expected to give them 
point and value. 

It is fair to assume, though dates altogether 
fail to help us, that as in all other countries 
so in China the first literary efforts of the 
people were in the shape of poetry. Some of 
the odes of the She king carry us back to 
very remote times, and even before these found 
expression in words, there probably existed a 
still earlier stratum of verse. As has already 
been explained, it is very difficult to criticise 
minutely the merits and measures of these old 
odes, owing to the changes which both the 
sounds and the characters have undergone; 
but we find that the lines for the most part 
consisted of only four characters each. When 
the language lost its polysyllabic character, 
such a measure was plainly inadequate to give 
the rhythm which is necessary for polished 
versification, and consequently the common 
metre was changed to lines of five characters, 
and later still to lines of seven. This last 
metre was generally adopted by the poets of 
the T'ang Dynasty (a. d. 618-907), the golden 



548 The Literature. 

age of poetry, and has since continued* the 
favorite measure. 

Though it is true that the spoken laT-,guage 
is by no means monosyllabic, the characters do 
as a rule represent single syllables, and it may 
therefore at first sight appear strange that lines 
of seven monosyllabic words can ever be 
rhythmical ; but the laws of Chinese verse- 
making are such as to ensure a pleasing ca- 
dence in the lines, and the tones of the char- 
acters give a musical intonation to them. 
Strict rules are followed in the arrangement 
of the characters, and in verses of seven syl- 
lables a csesural pause occurs after the fourth 
syllable, which serves to divide also the gram- 
matical sense of the verse. Rhymes are ob- 
served at the ends of lines, but in Chinese an 
element in rhyming exists apart from the identity 
of sound which is unknown in European lan- 
guages ; and that is, that in order to constitute 
a rhyme the similarly sounding syllables must 
be in the same tone. For example. Fang 
and Kwang rhyme because they are both 
pronounced in the even tone, but a poet who 
attempted to make Fang (even tone), and 
Kwang (rising tone), rhyme, would be scouted 



On the Phoenix Tower. 549 

as an igorant fellow. As a rule, all the lines 
do not rhyme. More commonly than not, 
alternate lines beginning with the second are 
made to rhyme, while no regard is paid to 
the sounds, apart from the tones, of the 
concluding syllables of the intermediate verses. 
The following is an example of a stanza in 
eight lines, in which it will be observed that 
the second, fourth, sixth, and eighth lines 
rhyme, while the first, as is often the case, gives 
the cue to the rhyming syllable. The ode is by 
the celebrated poet of the T'ang Dynasty, Le 
Tai-pih, and is entitled " On ascending the 
Phoenix tower at Nanking": — 

Fung hwaiig tai shang — fung hwang yew 
The phoenixes are on the tower — the phoenixes wander. 

Fung kii t'ai k'ung — keang tsze lew 
The male bird goes, the tower is empty — the river alone flows 
by. 
Woo kung hwa tsaou — mal yew king 
[So] in Woo's palace the flowers and shnibs — bury the hidden 
paths, 
Tsin tai e kwan — ch'ing koo kew 
I And methinks I see] Tsin dynasty clothes and caps — filling 
the ancient hill. 
San shan pan loli — ts'ing t'een wai 
The three mountains in half separate — and the azure sky is 
beyon4. 



550 The Literature, 

Urh shuy chun fun — pih loo chow 
Thr two streams midway divide — fortlie wliite egret's isle. 

T'sung wei fow yuii — nS-ng pe jih 
In all directions are floating clouds — suflBcient to obscure the 
sun. 

Ch'ang-ngan puh keen — she jin ts'ow 
Ch'ang-ngan is out of sight — and the envoy is sorrowful. 

In this stanza we have all the leading char- 
acteristics of Chinese poetry. The last syllable 
of the first line gives the cue to the rhj^me 
which is followed in the second, fourth, sixth, 
and eighth lines, by the words lew, kew^ choiv, 
fsow, which are all in the same tone, the even 
tone. After the fourth syllable in each line is 
a marked csesural pause, b}^ observing which 
the rhythmical harmony of the verses is much 
increased, and which coincides with a break 
in the sentence. There is also the parallelism 
in which Chinese poets delight. We have " the 
flowers and shrubs of the Woo Palace," and 
" the clothes and caps of the Tsin Dynasty ; " 
we have the " three mountains in half sepa- 
rate," and " the two streams midway divide." 
Not only is this a good specimen of the me- 
chanical peculiarities of Chinese poetry, but it 
gives a fair idea of the kind of stuff Chinese 
poetry is made of. There is nothing striking in 



Perfunctory Poetry. 551 

thought or sentiment ; such merits are seldom en- 
countered ; the main object being to conform as 
closely as possible to the recognized canons of the 
art, and to perfect the diction. This perfunc- 
tory way of manufacturing poetry is inevitable 
in a country where every student has as a 
part of his education to learn to write it. 
By the flood of indifferent verses which annu- 
ally inundate the empire the national taste is 
destro3^ed, and the ordinary run of poetry has 
been reduced to the level of schoolboys' exer- 
cises. So fully is this recognized, that diction- 
aries of poetical quotations are as essential to 
a poet's literary workroom as a Gradus ad 
Parnassum is to the equipment of a fourth-form 
English schoolboy. 

Under the present dynasty poetry as well 
as other branches of literature is held to 
have revived, and the following quotation has 
been taken from a collection as a good speci- 
men of the present condition of the muse in 
China: — 

Shan kii tsiii jili — woo kaou muh ; 
She nil k'een lo — foo maou wiih. 
Fang ts'aou ch'un she — shin pe mum; 
Yue ming tsze pan — mei hwa suh. 



552 The Literature. 

In the mountains I live all the day — humble and rude is my 

lot; 
The creepers my maiden entwines — which cover my primitive 

cot. 
In spring-time the sweet-smelling plants — completely the door 

over-creep. 
The moon's beams alone fill the sky — while the plum-blossoms 

peacefully sleep. 

In addition to the regular poetry spoken of 
above there are a kind of poetical composition 
known as Foo^ which has a metre of four and six 
feet in alternate lines ; irregular poems, termed 
Ts'oo ts'ze^ where the rhyme recurs at the ends 
of lines of various lengths; and Ts^ze, a kind 
of roundelay in the extempore composition of 
which scholars amuse themselves at their fes- 
tive gatherings. 

The Drama received a comparatively late 
development in China, as it was not until the 
latter end of the T'ang Dynasty that a Chi- 
nese Thespis arranged the wild dances and 
songs, the precursors of the drama, into con- 
nected and orderly plays. From this period 
the art of dramatic writing improved until the 
time of the Mongol Dynasty founded by 
Jenghiz Khan, when it may be said to have 
readied its highest excellence ; but even in 



The Chinese Drama. 553 

the most finished works of the best period 
there is, as the author has stated in another 
connexion, a want of " those touches of fancy 
and that play of imagination which we look 
for in the works of European playwrights. 
No great author has arisen to teach them to 
analyze the motives which sway men in the 
concerns of every-day life, and novelists and 
playwrights, therefore, are content to make 
their characters move, act, and converse at 
will, without troubling themselves to make a 
psychological study of the thoughts which in- 
fluence them. Thus even in the best pla3^s 
the characters are moved about in a some- 
what disconnected and arbitrary way to suit 
the design of the author, too often in defiance 
of the probabilities, and with a total disre- 
gard of the old-fashioned unities. If they are 
unable to reach a high standard of dramatic 
writing, the}^ show considerable skill in invent- 
ing incidents and in introducing clever and 
humorous dialogues. Thus they startle and 
amuse more than they interest, and cater for 
the eye and ear rather than for the mind." * 



*"The Chinese Drama," by the Author, in the Qontemporary Review, for 
January, i88q, 



654 The Literature, 

The absence of all scenery on the Chinese 
stage necessitates the awkward expedient of 
putting into the mouth of each character as 
he appears a monologue explaining who he is, 
where he is, and the object of Ids being in that 
particular place. In the same way a change of 
scene has to be indicated by an explicit an- 
nouncement by the actor, in some such form 
as the following : — " Now I am at such and 
such a place." These interruptions, as may well 
be understood, materially mar the literary effect 
of a Chinese play, which otlierwise is often 
not without merit. 

The best collection of dramas is known as 
the "Hundred Plays of the Yuen Dynasty." 
The tone of these is higher and purer than 
most of the modern dramatic writings, which 
are too often grossly indecent, but even in 
these, many of the incidents introduced would, 
if judged by a European standard,, be consid- 
ered coarse. Though the moral teaching may 
not be all that could be desired, the audience 
is yet taught that a sure nemesis follows evil 
deeds, and that to live happily one must live 
virtuously. 

The same poverty of imagination which 



No Characterization in the Plays. 555 

marks the poetry is observable also in the 
novels and tales. A Chinese novelist never 
attempts to make analyses of -his characters, 
and there is no interweaving of a subtle plot 
in his pages. His canvas is covered with a 
succession of incidents more or less isolated, 
all of which are depicted in the broadest 
colors. No softening lines or gradual shad- 
ings mitigate the villainy or the profligate 
characters, or the supreme excellence of the 
virtuous personages. The bad are as incapable 
of doing anything but evil as the other sort 
are of doing anything but good. They are all 
either very black or very white. The hero, 
who in every case is as marvellousl}^ accom- 
plished as an Admirable Crichton, is per- 
fectly virtuous, as strong as Hercules, as brave 
as Achilles, and a very Nestor for wisdom. 
As the end of all Chinese novels is to pro- 
claim the triumph of virtue, it becomes the in- 
variable role of the hero to defend the o])- 
pressed, to make straight the crooked paths of 
corrupt and vicious officials, and to redress 
every wrong that presents itself to him. At 
the examinations he takes the highest honors, 
and rises to a supreme position in the state. 



556 The Literature, 

Imperial favors are lavished on him, or, if 
for a moment the wiles of the first villain 
cloud his career, the mist is soon cleared 
away, to his additional renown and to his 
enemy's infinite discomfiture. 

The best novel which is translatable is the 
ITaou K'etv chuen, which has been rendered 
into English by Sir John Davis, among others. 
In this work the chief interest centres in a 
succession of endeavors made by the villain 
of the story to prevent the marriage of the 
heroine with the hero, and to carry her off 
as his own bride. The inevitable result fol- 
lows ; the villain is defeated, and the hero and 
heroine receive at the hands of the emperor 
the reward of their deeds ; and the work 
comes to a gratifying end which can, perhaps, be 
best shown by a quotation. In the words of 
Sir John Davis's translation, " Teili-chungyii, his 
bride, and the assembled court then bowed 
down and acknowledged the imperial bounty, 
and the hum of joy and gratulation resembled 
the distant roll of thunder. The attendants 
had received their orders, and as they filed off 
in pairs, the ornamental lanterns in all their 
radiance, the harmonious band in full sound, 



Joy and Grratulation, 



557 



and the marshalled banners in their variegated 
splendor, escorted the renowned and happy- 
couple as they proceeded homewards, attended 
by a vast company." 

The choicest bud, unblown, exhales no sweets. 
No radiance can the untried gem display; 
Misfortune, like the winter cold that binds 
The embryo fragrance of the flower, doth lend 
A fresher charm to fair prosperity. 





CHAPTER XX. 

SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE 

FROM 1875 TO 1894 inclusive.* 

|I-HUNG-CHANG, who as governor of 
Kiang-Su had aided Gordon to crush the 
Taiping rebellion — during which it has 
been estimated twenty million persons perished — and who 
w^as known by the name of Li-Futai, succeeded to the 
office of Prime Minister. The Formosa difficulty with 
Japan was now settled, in accordance with the terms, 
however, as dictated by the Mikado, viz., the withdrawal 
of the Japanese troops and the acceptance of one hun- 
dred and fifty thousand pounds as indemnity. 

With characteristic inclination for attacking foreign- 
ers some Chinese soldiers at Ching-Kiang assaulted the 
American Consul and his wife, further trouble only 
being averted by the prompt dispatch of American and 
British men-of-war from Shanghai, when the reparation 
demanded was unhesitatingly extended. The great 
Weising lottery scheme, for the drawing of names of the 

♦Continued from page 86. 

558 



Li- Hung -Chang. 559 

successiiil candidates at official examinations, became a 
public scandal in 1875. The profits were found to be 
enormous, eight hundred thousand dollars of which — 
according to Boulger — found its way into the pockets of 
the Viceroy of Canton, as hush money. These flagrant 
abuses, together with the inadequate system of examina- 
tion, induced Li-Hung-Chang to petition for the intro- 
duction of western studies in the schools, and the exam- 
ination of candidates in the sciences. In his memorial, 
he said: — "Since the opening of our connection with 
foreign nations, our literary men and officers have con- 
tinued to adhere to traditional ideas. In arrogant 
language and high-sounding phrases they have derided 
foreigners, and regard it as beneath their dignity to notice 
them, and they are therefore at a loss what to do when 
foreign afiairs have to be disposed of" 

China still continued to be the theatre of chronic re- 
volt and endemic disaster. In 1876, Jakub Kushbegi — 
Yakoob Beg — the Amir of Kashgaria, with an army of 
forty thousand, defeated the Chinese troops sent to sup- 
press the rebellion, and an additional tax was levied to 
quell the local uprisings in Kwang-Tung and Shansi. 
At Gumti, the Kashgarian rebels were later bombarded 
and defeated with a loss of six thousand men, and 
Urumtsi surrendered. After a great loss of Chinese 
troops, commanded by Kinshun,who, in 1874, under the 



560 The Tungan Annihilated. 

direction of Tso-Tsang-Tang, had commenced his march 
across the desert from Souchow, the stronghold of Manas, 
finally capitulated, and Haiyen, the Mahomedan leader, 
left the shelter of the fort and came out with three thou- 
sand of his men to negotiate for terms of peace. "Bear- 
ing arms, and with their women and children in the 
center of the phalanx, the Chinese became suspicious," or 
at least offered the plea of doubt in extenuation of their 
subsequent barbarity. The Tungan were surrounded, 
and as they attempted to cut their way out were ruth- 
lessly annihilated. Contemporaneously with these events 
drought and famine had overtaken the district of 
Houan, flanking the course of the Yellow river, creating 
an unparalleled dearth, while a fearful flood visited 
Foo-Chow, five thousand bodies being discovered at one 
point alone, after the assuaging of the water. 

The first railway constructed in China was completed 
in 1876. Eleven miles being equipped between Shang- 
hai and Woosung, but the congratulations of its pro- 
jectors were of short duration; the native officials 
stopped further operations, on the pretense of assuming 
its management, and the rails were finally removed to 
Formosa. A perceptible spirit of progress and im- 
provement was now visible. Kiungchow, on the Island 
of Hainan, was made a treaty port, as was also Paklui, 
Wuhu and Wenchow, together with Ichang, one thou- 



Treaty Ports on the Yang-tse-Kiang. 561 

sand miles from the sea, the entrepot for the province 
of Szechuen, the " land of plenty," and for the flanking 
valley of the navigable Yang-tse-kiang with its millions 
of industrious people. 

By the pacific opening up of new territory through 
the humanizing influence of trade, travelling was now 
attended with less danger. Captain Gill, who undertook 
a journey through Southwest China into Burmah, expe- 
riencing no practical opposition. 

Another famine of still greater severity than that of 
the previous year, and consequent upon the destruction 
of the crops, now appeared in Shantung. The sale of cloth- 
ing succeeded the sale of children, and underground pits 
of refiige were constructed for shelter from the cold. 
In the city of Chung-Chow four of these contained 
nearly three hundred persons, and notwithstanding the 
deaths that resulted from the foulness of the atmosphere, 
and the indescribable filthiness, as fast as a corpse was 
borne to the surface, crowds half frozen and famished, 
men and women, would struggle for the vacant place. 

Tso-Tsang-Tang, having pacified the Northwest and 
overthrown the Turgani, now marched onwards to Sun- 
garia, described by Reclus as "the broad gateway 
leading from the Chinese to the western world." Ya- 
koob Beg having died in May, little resistance was offered 
by his two sons, who were busy with an internecine 

86 



662 Conquests 'bi Turkestan and Manchuria. 

war, and after feeble opposition the city of Kashgar 
was taken, on December 17th, by an army of twelve 
thousand men under the generalship of Lien-Sho-Daryn. 
After ten years of insurrection, and a joint display of 
"unexampled cowardice and unheard of barbarities," 
the Chinese had at last brought to a " triumphant con- 
clusion, the campaign undertaken for the reassertions of 
their authority over the Mahomedan rebels." Not sat- 
isfied, however, with their conquests in Eastern Tur- 
kestan, the Imperial troops, flushed with their successes, 
pushed yet further beyond the Great Wall and Man- 
churia, into the more remote metropolitan province of 
Ili, with a view of its ultimate recovery from the tempo- 
rary custody of Russia. To facilitate the accomplish- 
ment of this design, Chung How was dispatched upon 
the delicate mission of plenipotentiary to St. Petersburg, 
to negotiate for its possible official and pacific transfer. 
Though Kashgar was in the hands of the Chinese, 
Kuldja was still retained by the Russians, but held 
subject to pledged evacuation so soon as China had 
shown her ability to restore and maintain order by force 
of arms. But Kuldja was a place of some strategical 
importance, and the disinclination on the part of Russia 
to surrender her authority led to complications which 
threatened to interrupt the hitherto friendly relations 
existing between the two governments. Chung How, 



Russia Cedes Kuldja. 563 

unfortunately for himself, regarded territorial expansion 
as a quite secondary consideration, and thought little of 
frontier defences or lines of demarkation, so upon his 
uncalled for return with a promise of the acceptance of 
a five million rouble indemnity, he was charged with 
" disobeying instructions," and would have lost his head, 
but for the timely intercession of the British sovereign. 
The Marquis Tseng, by a subsequent and successful dis- 
play of diplomacy, succeeded in 1880 in obtaining from 
Kussia " the almost unqualified territorial concession of 
Hi." Kuldja was retroceded to China, and the capital 
transferred to Suitung. But Kussia exacted an indem- 
nity of ten million roubles, and twelve thousand four 
hundred and sixty square miles of territory on the Black 
Irtysh, in the Tekkes river valley, besides retaining special 
treaty rights, and a Russian Consul remains in residence 
at Kashgar. 

There is little doubt but that the valuable commercial 
privileges conceded to Russia at this time alone pre- 
vented war. Besides Kalgan, another right of way at 
the western end of the Great Wall at Souchow was per- 
mitted. The Russian fleet concentrated at Vladivos- 
tock was the " most powerful ever sent to Eastern seas," 
while a small intermediary force of Russian troops could 
have cut off all communication from the Chinese Central 
Asian army of sixty thousand men — with the Chinese 



564 Chinese Turkestan and Mongolia. 

frontier. Had hostilities eventuated, Russia could 
readily have occupied Northern Corea, and seized Port 
LazarefF with its unequalled harbor, situated only one 
hundred miles south of the boundary of Russian Tar- 
tary, on the sea of Japan. 

Colonel Gordon, who had been summoned to advise 
with Li-Hung-Chang, declared, much to the ill-concealed 
chagrin of the Chinese soldiers, that " they had deceived 
themselves as to their boasted progress in the military 
art, and were entirely deluded in their belief that their 
army and munitions of war were on a par with those of 
European nations, for, as a matter of fact, they were as 
defective and primitive as ever." 

Of the area and population of Chinese Turkestan little 
is known, the trade from India having to enter by the 
lofty pass of Karakoram at an altitude of eighteen thou- 
sand five hundred feet, or by the obstacle route through 
Kashmir and Hunza, or by the alternative and almost 
inaccessible passes of the Hindu Kush. The western 
boundary lies in the debatable land of the Pamirs. Of 
greater Mongolia, with its elevated plateau of extraordi- 
nary altitude, seldom less than ten thousand feet, and its 
millions of a nomad population of Buddhists, still less is 
known. Lhassa is the religious center and capital, and the 
Mongols still acknowledge the sovereignty of the Grand 
Lama of Tibet. 



Trade with India and the United States, 565 

Notwithstanding the imperial edict forbidding the 
cultivation of the poppy in Kashgar, and the official de- 
struction of the crop, the evil continued with little real 
abatement. The importations from India steadily in- 
creased, and as the crop, is seven times more remunera- 
tive than grain, "its suppression was a problem." 
While its importation into both Russia and the United 
States was forbidden by treaty, the income from its 
cultivation had reached nine million pounds in 1881, in 
the face of a tariff, the prohibitory usefulness of which, 
however, was nullified by the qualifying provision of a 
"maximum rate." Despite the malign influence of the 
drug, the industrial influences of machinery continued 
to attract the people. In 1879, the first steam cotton- 
mill was established, with a factory containing one hun- 
dred looms. Whether this contributed to the enormous 
falling ofi" in the importations of American cotton-goods 
— they declined from six hundred and thirty-three thou- 
sand pieces in 1879 to one hundred and seventy-two 
thousand pieces in 1880 — or whether an increased do- 
mestic demand in the United States w^as solely responsi- 
ble, the fact remains, that a measure of industrial prog- 
ress hitherto "retarded by the abuses of Chinese 
ofiicialism, as well as by the conservative prejudices of 
the people," was now apparent in the adoption of west- 
ern arts and commercial methods. 



566 Death of the Dowager Empress Tsi An. 

A revolt, which for a time assumed a threatening 
character, occurred in 1879 among the Hakkas, a tribe 
from Central Asia, practically a band of interlopers, 
who became dissatisfied with the lands allotted to them 
on the Island of Hainan, a part of the province of Can- 
ton. They were soon subdued. In May of the same 
year General Grant visited China, and was made the re- 
cipient of attentions, such as were never before bestowed 
upon a foreigner ; he was banqueted at Tientsin and Pe- 
king. A treaty, relating chiefly to the status of the 
Chinese in Cuba, was concluded with Spain, as were also 
two others with the United States in 1880, providing for 
the treatment of Chinese emigrants, and trade relations. 
The navy was reinforced by four new iron-clads of Eng- 
lish build, and thirty-nine miles of telegraph lines were 
constructed. The regretable death of the Dowager Em- 
press Tsi An, remarkable for her firmness and resolution, 
left the Empress Tse Hi sole regent, and preluded the 
complex condition of afiairs in Corea, the "forbidden 
land " which China was called upon to face. 

The King of Corea, fearful of Russian aggression, 
readily accepted a proposed treaty with China as an 
alternative and lesser evil, and announced — acting under 
Chinese coercion — that " under the guidance of Chinese 
encouragement" he was prepared to throw open the Co- 
rean ports to outside trading countries. The text of this 



China, Japan and the Corea. 567 

treaty was carried to the court of Seoul by Commodore 
Schufeldt, an American naval officer, and was duly 
signed. The dominant and equally transparent policy 
of Li-Hung-Chang at once aroused the jealousy of 
Japan, who claimed to have equal voice with China in 
the Corean control and hurried a fleet and army to 
threaten the Corean capital and assert its rights. This 
was followed by a counter-display on the part of China 
with a fleet of gun-boats and five thousand troops, and 
the question of the undivided suzerainty of the penin- 
sula was at last made a living bone of contention, des- 
tined to culminate later on in the great war of 1894-95 
and China's complete humiliation. The intervention of 
foreign diplomatists averted the threatened rupture, 
though China, determined upon asserting in some way 
its right to material acquisition, seized the person of Tai- 
Wung-Kun, the father of the king, and bore him as a 
temporary hostage to the palace at Peking. The open- 
ing of the treaty ports to the powers, gave an excuse for 
a cessation of belligerent display, and once again the old 
time jealousies of China and Japan were permitted to 
slumber. 

In 1882, the French decided to establish a definite 
protectorate over Tonquin. " Indo-China was an invit- 
ing field," writes Boulger, "and the weakness of the 
kingdom of Annam was too great a temptation." 



568 Temporary Commercial Panic. 

French expansion in China had long been regarded as 
a field for "great advantage at little comparative risk." 
These and other domestic troubles seriously affected 
trade and helped to precipitate a commercial panic. A 
financial crisis followed and interest rose to thirty- 
five per cent. Innumerable joint stock enterprises had 
been exploited. Paper, glass, and cotton factories, 
and gold and silver mines, had tempted excessive specu- 
lation, and the reckless investment of native capital 
under native management proved disastrously unprofit- 
able, while owing to a disease which attacked the silk- 
worms the quantity of silk exported amounted to less 
than one-half of the shipments of former years. Anti- 
European riots disturbed Canton, and were only checked 
by the presence of British and French gun-boats. 
Shanghai, however, distinguished itself by its encourage- 
ment of higher education, the American University 
established by the Rev. Professor Allen receiving the lib- 
eral support of the Chinese merchants. 

The French meanwhile had discovered that the Songcoi 
or Red river presented facilities for penetrating the rich 
province of Yunnan, its mineral wealth was a sore temp- 
tation, and so, under guise of establishing " a protectorate 
of China, they captured the town of Hanoi, the nominal 
capital of Tonquin, and situated at the delta of the river. 
The relation of Tonquin to China was similar to that 



French Invade Tonquin. 569 

borne by Corea. After the death, in July, 1883, of King 
Tuduc, who had become "subservient to the French," 
the Annamese, encouraged by certain reverses of the 
French troops near the capital were encouraged into a 
display of hostility, but which proved of brief duration. 
The court city of Hue surrendered, and by the terms of a 
promptly concluded treaty the new king became in due 
turn a dependent of France. Meanwhile the engage- 
ment with the Black Flags at Sontag resulted in the de- 
feat of the Chinese troops, and a treaty of peace on behalf 
of France was entered into in May, by Admiral Four- 
nier and the Chinese government. But the treaty did 
not serve to unravel the diplomatic tangle. China 
announced an " unofficial war with France," and threat- 
ened, through Marquis Tseng, to declare actual war if its 
garrisons were attacked, while M. Ferry retaliated by 
threatening the exaction of an indemnity for the irregu- 
lar hostilities in Tonquin. After the capture of Bacninh, 
the occupation of Langson was stipulated for, and a 
French force under Colonel Dugenne advanced upon the 
place, declining to await the receipt by the Chinese of 
instructions from Peking authorizing its evacuation. 
The place was captured, a misunderstanding in regard to 
dates being the excuse offered for its premature seizure. 
Neither government being able to come to terms the 
President of the United States was appealed to by China 



670 Bombardment of the Min Forts. 

to act as mediator in accordance with the terms of the 
treaty. The request was acceded to upon the condition 
that it could be proved that China had not violated the 
terms of the convention. To this France objected, and 
through M. Jules Ferry demanded the absurd indemnity 
of two hundred and fifty million francs. This was in- 
dignantly refused, and a compromise offer of three mil- 
lion five hundred thousand francs was subsequently 
offered and accepted. 

During a quasi period of peace the French fleet under 
Admiral Courbet,on an alleged pacific mission, had, by a 
stratagem, taken up a position beyond the Chinese arsenal 
and fleet on the Min river above Foochow, from which 
strategic point, on the 18th of July, immediately after 
the announcement of hostilities and the French ultima- 
tum, took advantage of its position and raked the Min 
forts, which were unable to train their guns in reply. 
This lamentable lack of French chivalry resulted in 
an estimated loss to the Chinese of one thousand killed 
and three thousand wounded. The French lost seven ! 
Hitherto there being no formal declaration of war the 
French had made use of Hong-Kong as a base of pro- 
tective operations. The manifest unfairness of the Min 
episode was resented by Sir Harry Parkes, the British 
representative, who now issued a proclamation declaring 
that the action of the French fleet at Foochow was tan- 



France Oceupies Tonquin. 571 

tamount to a declaration of open hostilities. The Teng- 
yuen and the Chen- Yuen steel armor plated ships, built 
at Kiel, and other armored cruisers, were added to the 
Chinese fleet, which under protest from France was now 
largely officered by Germans; Krupp guns were also 
purchased and the one hundred and twenty thousand 
men under command of two German generals were armed 
with the Mauser rifle. While both nations still refrained 
from a formal declaration of war, France, " in order to 
starve the Chinese government into submission," hastened 
to proclaim rice as " contraband of war/' a sweeping meas- 
ure that was not unqualifiedly permitted to prevail by 
the neutral powers. By the final recapture of Langson 
on May 5th, 1885, and other fortresses, and after great 
loss of life, and many reverses owing to China's stub- 
born resistance, France finally established its supremacy 
in Tonquin, but at a monetary cost of four hundred and 
seventy million francs. A treaty of peace was executed 
at Tient-sin, June 9th, 1885, between M. Patrenotre 
and Li-Hung-Chang. The question of China's suze- 
rainty over Annam " being vaguely treated, leaving the 
sentimental and historical claim of China precisely 
where it was," granting no further concessions than 
those obtained by the Fournier convention, br "■ "giv- 
ing France a free hand in the establishment of he. ^o- 
tectorate." 



572 British Seize Port Hamilton. 

"Little was learned," says Boulger,'' from this cam- 
paign, of China's fighting strength, for the regulars had 
no opportunity of showing their quality." The chief 
weakness seemed to rest in the " incapability of the offi- 
cers to conduct a campaign," yet they still gave a *' very 
good account of themselves against one of the greatest 
powers in Europe." Had the war been further prose- 
cuted without outside interference, there seems but little 
question as to what would have been the final result, 
"though China," according to a writer in Appleton, 
" in the improved condition of her army and coast de- 
fences, was in a better position to continue the struggle, 
notwithstanding her impoverished exchequer, than was 
the French government, the temper of the nation for- 
bidding the expenditure of the military strength of 
France in colonial adventures." 

While Russia was neglecting no opportunity to foment 
strife between Japan and China, with alert regard for 
her own obvious interest in Corea, a British Admiral 
acting under instruction of the minister at Peking 
occupied — without definitely annexing — Port Hamilton, 
closing all the entrances to the harbor but one. As all 
the sea-routes between the Yangtse-Kiang, and northern 
parts of China and treaty ports of Japan, converge 
here, and the fort commanded the approach to the 
Russian arsenal at Vladivostock, it seemed to 



Dismissal of Prince Kung. 573 

certain strategic advantages. The cost and difficulty 
of its proper fortifying having been reported upon un- 
favorably, it was retroceded to China two years later. 

Prince Kung, who had been regarded as the most 
influentially powerful man in China since the treaty of 
Pekin, was summarily dismissed from office by decree 
of the Empress Kegent, and Prince Chun, a man of 
imperious will, became a prominent figure in the new 
Board of National Defence. The administration of 
naval matters was now centralized with Li-Hung-Chang 
and Marquis Tseng in active control, and Admiral Lang, 
the English officer who had retired from the command 
of the navy sooner than take up arms against France, 
was re-engaged, and five new war-ships purchased. 

The efiTort made by the Pope in. 1886 to establish 
a permanent representative of the Vatican in China, was 
unsuccessfiil. France objecting on jealous grounds 
owing to China's previous refusal to permit French 
protection of Chinese Catholic converts, and threaten- 
ing the home separation of Church from State if the 
Pope persisted. With the slow delimitation of the 
Tonquin frontier, the commercial concessions anticipated 
by France were stoutly resisted by China, who now had 
little fear of the resumption of hostilities. The barrier 
tax on opium, however, which had been fixed by con- 
vention in London, was finally removed, the cultivation 



574 Educational Progress. 

of the drug was formally legalized by imperial edict, 
and Tonquin-grown opium was permitted to be imported 
into Southern China. Greater attention than ever be- 
fore was now directed to the development of educational 
facilities, and various technical institutions received 
the encouragement of the government, notably the 
Tong Weng College in Peking, a state institution under 
the presidency of an American Scientist, Professor W. 
A. Martin. Military and naval schools were also 
opened at Tientsin, Foochow and Shanghai. 

Although all but the very lowest of the poorer classes 
can read more or less, not ten per cent, of the women 
can either read or write, and " higher education," says 
Whitaker, "consists in acquiring a knowledge of the 
Chinese language." Entirely wrapt up in themselves 
they still continue to know nothing of the affairs of 
other nations, whom they yet speak of, although no 
longer officially, as " barbarians." 

The local railway at the Kaiping mines declared a div- 
idend, and at last, permission was obtained to extend it to 
Tientsin, while another to Petang was also undertaken. 

In 1894 the much projected railway from Tientsin to 
Tungchow, a point about fifteen miles from Peking, still 
appeared on paper only. At the close of the same year 
the railway from Tientsin had reached Shan-Hai- 
Kuan — a distance of two hundred miles — where the 



*' China's Sorrow." 575 

Great Wall touches the sea. The Formosa, sixty-five 
miles of road, has, however, proved both successful and 
profitable. The practical and foremost supporter of 
railway construction, and indeed of all public improve- 
ments, being Li-Hung-Chang, the viceroy of the prov- 
ince, and for a time commander-in-chief of the Chinese 
Army in the war (1894) with Japan. 

A commercial treaty with Portugal was concluded, 
and later during that same year — 1888 — a commission 
was appointed to investigate into the condition of the 
Chinese in the Philippine Islands, Borneo, Singapore 
and other places, several million of whom were reported 
to be engaged in labor or business, and all of whom 
were subjected, it was claimed, to discriminatory and 
unfair treatment. Towards the close of the year the 
civilized world was shocked to hear of the awful loss 
of life which accompanied the overflowing of the Yel- 
low river, "China's Sorrow." Hundreds of villages 
and walled cities were destroyed. One million six 
hundred thousand persons were believed to have per- 
ished, and five millions rendered destitute, the majority 
of whom subsequently succumbed to inevitable privation. 
Ten million dollars and the labors of sixty thousand 
men were fruitlessly expended in an attempt to coax 
the river into its original channel. In the province of 
Yunnan an earthquake destroyed five thousand people. 



576 Antir Christian Riots. 

On February 25th, 1889, the Emperor Kwangsu, 
having attained his eighteenth year, married Yeh-ho- 
no-la, the daughter of a Mandarin General, and on 
March 4th assumed the reins of government, the Em- 
press Regent relinquishing the direction of state affairs 
and passing into retirement. The death of the Marquis 
Tseng, the diplomatist, occurred early the following year, 
and in 1891 Prince Chun, the newly appointed Presi- 
dent of the Board of National Defence, died most unex- 
pectedly. The Emperor had barely succeeded to the 
throne when he declared, unmistakably, in favor of rail- 
way extension, and the construction of the eight hundred 
miles of road between Pekin and Hankow was sanctioned. 
Serious anti-Christian riots marked the early days of his 
reign. Outbreaks occurred in the valley of the Yangtse- 
Kiang in May, and at Wahu and other places which to- 
gether aggregated a population of one hundred thousand 
Catholics. An excuse for the unprovoked persecution 
being offered, in the fact that it was a flagrant breach of 
morality for the opposite sexes to sit together during re- 
ligious services, and to punish the transgressors, missions, 
churches and hospitals were burned to the ground. At 
Wusneh, a missionary and the customs officer were wan- 
tonly murdered, and three women were assaulted; at 
Ichang similar disturbances and great destruction of prop- 
erty took place, while even in remote Manchuria, the 



Bight of Imperial Audience. 577 

Belgian priests were put to the sword. The government 
"admitted its inability to cope with the uprising," which 
was traced to the machinations of the Kolao Hui and 
other secret societies, and confessed that if the foreign 
powers insisted upon the extirpating of the organizations, 
''anarchy and disruption of the empire would ensue." 
The naval forces of Great Britain and France were 
strengthened and satisfaction and redress demanded. 

The right of audience and personal reception of the 
foreign ministers by the Emperor, which, for some years 
had been strenuously insisted upon by the powers but al- 
ways denied, was accorded March 5th, 1885, owing to 
the united stand taken by the European representatives, 
and the diplomatic corps of " Barbarians " was admitted 
in person — but in a body — to the imperial presence. In 
return for this concession China demanded the right, so 
far as Great Britain was concerned, to establish consu- 
lates at Hong Kong, Singapore and other places. The 
national obeisance before the sovereign, and one rigidly 
exacted, is the Ko-foiv, consisting of nine prostrations. 
Indeed, it is the inflexible rule that any one official 
meeting another who has just left the imperial presence 
must perform the Ko-tow. In the case of the foreign 
ministers — and at a great sacrifice of imperial prestige — 
the performance of the Ko-tow, it is almost unnecessary 
to add, was not made obligatory. While the Emperor 

37 



578 United States Minister^ Blair. 

of China is an absolute monarch, his powers, as defined 
by the greatest jurists of the country, are identically the 
same as those awarded to **the Christian sovereigns of 
Europe who rule by right divine." The will of the Em- 
peror of China is held in check by the " accepted code of 
Confucius," which lays down the governing rules of con- 
duct for both sovereign and subject, and at all times sub- 
ject to the unsparing criticism of the Board of Censors. 
"An educated public opinion," writes Boulger, "acts, as 
history clearly shows, as an excellent brake on the 
impetuosity of any man entrusted with irresponsible 
power," a power in this instance no greater however, 
than that of Czar or Sultan. 

Upon the appointment of Henry W. Blair as United 
States Minister to Peking, strong objections were raised 
by the Chinese government on the grounds that the newly 
appointed minister had advocated in Congress the ex- 
clusion of Chinese from the United States, and helped to 
secure the passage of legislation hostile to Chinese immi- 
gration. The Emperor refused to see Mr. Blair, and 
President Harrison declined to recall his representative. 
Following upon this incident and in order, perhaps, to 
accentuate his displeasure, the Emperor relaxed ceremony 
so far as to receive Mr. O' Conor, the British representa- 
tive, at the imperial residence of "peace and plenty" 
within the " Forbidden City," a concession hitherto never 



Trade and Finance. 579 

extended, and a mark of favor which became " a standing 
grievance with the other ministers at Peking." 

Early in the present decade the construction of tele- 
graph lines was pushed with vigor, and connection with 
the Kussian trans-continental system was affected by 
means of which messages can now be sent all over west- 
ern Asia and Europe cheaper than by cable. In the 
spring of 1894 the masterful floods of the great Yangtse- 
Kiang again overflowed its banks, and the loss of life 
on the adjacent low lands was enormous. 

The value of the foreign and domestic trade of China 
is hard to obtain. In 1875 it was estimated at about 
two hundred and five million dollars, in 1893 the total 
trade, conducted by only seventeen of the twenty treaty 
ports, alone amounted to about one hundred and forty- 
eight million nine hundred and ninety-seven thousand 
seven hundred and eighty dollars. Imports and exports, 
one hundred and fourteen million eight hundred and nine 
thousand nine hundred and thirty dollars. As regards 
revenue and expenditure no trustworthy statements exist. 
In 1875 the revenue was supposed to have amounted to 
one hundred and twenty-five million dollars. In 1874 
the first foreign loan was contracted. It was for the sum 
of six hundred and twenty-seven thousand seven hun- 
dred and sixty-five pounds obtained at ninety-five per 
cent, and bearing eight per cent, interest, secured by the 



580 A Corrupt Civil Service, 

custom's duties. Of the three foreign loans in all there 
was outstanding in January, 1892, only three million 
seven hundred and fifty-five thousand pounds, while the 
internal debt does not exceed eight million seven hundred 
and fifty thousand pounds. From this it will be seen 
that China's national debt is surprisingly inconsiderable. 
Unlike Japan, she has borrowed little. 

Of the revenue, most of that which is raised in the 
Provinces is applied, apparently, to local purposes, but 
a small proportion ever reaching Peking for the use of 
the central government. Of the revenue at the present 
day which is placed by good authority at a possible 
four hundred million dollars, Peking is said to receive 
one-third. Out of this the Emperor has to pay court ad- 
ministration, the expenses of the Army and Navy, and 
contingencies, the remainder is squandered with the as- 
sistance of a corrupt government and a dishonest civil serv- 
ice. Some twenty thousand officials comprise this latter 
body, whose names appear according to seniority in an 
official Red Book published periodically. While the or- 
ganization of the bureaus is pronounced admirable, " cor- 
ruption is-all pervading." The great and "crying evil 
of China's civil service are the hordes of expectant offi- 
cials, who, awaiting their turn by right of success at 
examinations, for appointments promised, but which 
never come, pass their time in levying blackmail on the 



The Suzerainty of the Corea. 581 

unsophisticated masses." Over ninety thousand duly 
qualified young men are said to present themselves yearly 
for final examination, which would entitle them to ofiice, 
in a service which at the most liberal estimate does not 
contain more than twenty-two thousand paid members. 
The quasi dependent condition of Corea, and the un- 
settled state of its afl^airs, measurably owing to China's 
standing claim of suzerainty, and which, for years had 
been a bone of contention between the Chinese govern- 
ment and that of the Island Kingdom of Japan, at last 
became the excuse for open rupture between the two 
countries. Up to the time of the commencement of the 
present "war, Corea was considered to be doubtfully sub- 
ject to a somewhat indefinite suzerainty on the part of 
China, acknowledged by the sending of the customary 
annual tribute-missions to Peking. Japan, however, 
claimed, by the Treaty of Tientsin of 1885, to have se- 
cured an admission from China of "equality of rights in 
Corea." In 1876 Corea had, as already related, invited 
foreign intercourse, and the cities of Chemulpo, Fusan and 
Gensan, were, by the king's orders, ''acting," as was 
then announced, "under the guidance of Chinese encour- 
agement," thrown open as treaty ports to the outside 
trading world. From this time forward Japan had sub- 
stantial and increasing interests in Corea. But the aims 
of the two powers were radically different, Japan desiring 



582 Corea Attacks Japanese Invaders. 

but China being unwilling to introduce necessary reforms 
into the peninsula. Progress versus retrogression were 
swaying in the balance. 

Upon the 22nd of June, 1894, in pursuance of the ex- 
pressed policy of protecting its subjects and promoting 
its interests, Japan landed large bodies of troops in Corea. 
Four thousand soldiers were stationed at Chemulpo and* 
fifteen thousand at Seoul, the capital. On July 25th, 
the Corean army — instigated, it is alleged, by the Chinese 
government — made an unprovoked attack upon the Jap- 
anese force at Seoul, the battle resulting in the defeat of 
the Coreans and the flight of Li Hsi, the king. The 
kingdom of Corea, which measures some six hundred 
miles from north to south and one hundred and thirty- 
five miles from east to west, contains an area estimated 
at upwards of eighty thousand square miles, and a popu- 
lation "variously " estimated at between six and eighteen 
million, but reckoned according to the ''last government 
census" at ten million five hundred and twenty-nine thou- 
sand. Seoul, the capital, has a population of two hundred 
thousand. 

After the lapse of a few weeks, when affairs seemed to 
be approaching a point of pacific settlement between 
Japan and Corea, China insisted that the Japanese 
should withdraw their fleet, and that failing to do so, 
they threatened to advance upon the Japanese army of 



Japan and China Declare War. 583 

occupation by land and sea. Japan was given until the 
20th of July for purposes of reflection. The respite was 
not necessary, her mind was already made up, and in- 
terpreting the message as an ultimatum, without further 
ceremony, when she saw the Chinese war ships advanc- 
ing upon her fleet on July 27th opened fire, destroyed 
one of the opposing vessels and dispersed the enemy, 
sinking at the same time a transport flying the British 
flag. On the 1st of August an apology was tendered the 
British for sinking the transport which was fired upon 
owing to a misunderstanding, and a formal declaration 
of war was declared against China. Upon the follow- 
ing day the Emperor of China issued a manifesto, ac- 
cepting the invitation to fight, but placing the entire 
blame and responsibility on Japan for percipitating the 
conflict. 

The governments of the United States and Great 
Britain now declared their neutrality and Corea its 
independence of China, later entering into a treaty of 
alliance with Japan, to be terminated, however, as 
soon as a treaty of peace should be concluded between 
China and Japan. In October, the seat of war was 
transferred to the Chinese mainland, Japan assuming 
the aggressive, and landing forty thousand troops on 
the coast of Manchuria, threatening the safety of 
Moukden the ancient capital and twin seat of gov- 



584 Japanese Victories. 

eminent with Peking. At Wie Ju the opposing forces 
came into collision and the Chinese army was routed, 
the Mikados fleet meanwhile having obtained command 
of the strategic advantages offered by the Gulf of Pechili. 
On November 4th, Andong and Fong-wong, outworks 
of Port Arthur, succumbed to the superior gunnery 
of the Japanese, the Chinese soldiers being accused of 
cowardice, six general officers deserting their posts, 
followed by fifteen thousand of the rank and file of 
Chinese chivalry, while the conquering Japanese con- 
tinued their victorious march into the interior. 

The Chinese army at this time represented on paper 
one million soldiers, for the m^ost part equipped with 
arms out of date, and consisting principally of untrained 
men. This numerically immense force was comprised 
of seventy thousand Manchus, eighty thousand Mongols 
and some seven hundred thousand Chinese or Green 
Flags. Li-Hung-Chang's model army corps, known 
as the "Black Flag," and numbering fifty thousand, 
was utilized for garrisoning such forts as Port Arthur 
and Taku. Peking was garrisoned by the Manchus. 
Of the two hundred thousand Green Flag soldiers 
at Moukden about one-third was armed with Win- 
chester rifles. The maintenance of this poorly organ- 
ized and ill-equipped army costs over one hundred 
million dollars annually. 



China's Naval Strength. 585 

With the navy, as with the array and the revenue, 
it is almost impossible to distinguish between that which 
is strictly imperial and the vessels that are the property 
of or subject to the control of the viceroys of the mari- 
time provinces. Whitaker reports that numerous 
officials — such as the Salt Commissioners and others — 
maintain armed gunboats to assist them in the collection 
of duties on certain articles over which they have a 
. monopoly. What, however, is recognized as the navy 
proper is the fleet which cruises around Cheefoo, Tientsin 
and Port Arthur, and the southern fleet which acknowl- 
edges Shanghai or Foochow as its naval headquarters. 
According to the most recent returns the Chinese navy 
comprised the following vessels. 

The Chinese northern squadron in 1893 consisted of 
four barbette armorclads, one of nearly ten thousand 
tons, one turret ship, five deck protected cruisers of 
two thousand two hundred tons, four torpedo cruisers, 
twenty- three first class torpedo boats, and eleven gun- 
boats. At Foochow nine cruisers, three gunboats, and 
nine dispatch boats. Of the Shanghai "Armada," an 
armorclad, a gunboat and six floating batteries, an- 
swered to the roll call. The Canton flotilla was com- 
prised of thirteen gunboats. During the same year the 
services of Admiral Lang, who was for a long period 
engaged in organizing the naval force, and those of 



586 JaparCs Army and Navy. 

Gen. Von Haneken,* a German military engineer, Vere 
dispensed with, and Chinamen were appointed in their 
place. Japan's movable, offensive and defensive fight- 
ing capabilities consisted in 1891 of a total military en- 
rollment of two hundred and sixty-two thousand six 
hundred and twenty, with three hundred and fifty thou- 
sand three hundred and sixty-nine under conscription, 
twenty thousand of which force was kept in active service. 
The navy department consisted of thirteen thousand 
and ninety- two ofiicers and sailors on active service. 
The aggregate tonnage of the war ships amounted to 
sixty-one thousand tons displacement, representing seven- 
ty-six thousand one hundred and fifty-one horse-power, 
the vessels themselves mounting three hundred and twen- 
ty-four cannon of modern make, manned by five thou- 
sand seven hundred and twenty-six officers and "blue 
jackets." 

China, now thoroughly alarmed at the successes of the 
courageous islanders, was disposed to negotiate for terms 
of peace. On the 21st of the same month Port Arthur 
was captured, and the Chinese Dictator, Prince Kung, 
calmly avowed the impotence of the Chinese army to 
withstand the attacks of the Japanese troops, and pro- 
claimed China's complete willingness to abdicate its 

claims to Corean sovereignty, and pay a reasonable war 

* Reappointed in 1894, at the time of the declaration of war with 
Japan. 



Chilians Humiliation. 587 

indemnity. Japan expressed its readiness to negotiate 
if China would accede to its demand, namely, two hun- 
dred million dollars as compensation and if it would 
formally sue for peace. These terms China unequivo- 
cally refused. By December, the amount of indemnity 
demanded was increased to four hundred million dollars, 
and in addition to a national suing for peace, the cession 
of the territory occupied by the Japanese army was also 
insisted upon. 

While the more broad-minded of the Japanese were 
ready to listen to any reasonable negotiations for peace, 
believing that the punishment and the humiliation of 
China was complete, the military and the masses were 
too intoxicated with the successes of the troops to call 
upon the government to desist. 

But King Kwang-su and his counselors though de- 
spairing yet remained stubborn, and the Japanese army 
under Field Marshal Oyama commenced its triumphant 
overland march, while its successes by sea were no less phe- 
nomenal, and Asiatic history continued to be manufac- 
tured at an unprecedent rate. The prowess of Japanese 
arms, however, at the taking of Port Arthur, was sadly 
shorn of military prestige in the eyes of the civilized 
world by the atrocities reported to have been inflicted 
upon the conquered and defenseless inhabitants. This 
inexcusable relapse into savage barbarism has been 



588 China Sues for Peace. 

endeavored to be explained away by the fact that the Jap- 
anese soldiers only resorted to butchery as a retaliatory 
measure, when inspired by the sight of the indescribable 
indignities that had been imposed upon their own sol- 
diers, and upon the Japanese prisoners who had fallen 
into the hands of the enemy. Then the officers lost all 
control and the men lost all restraint. 

With the advent of the year 1895 Japan had three 
completely equipped army corps in the field, and ex- 
pressed its intention of withholding all terms of peace 
until its troops should have occupied Peking. In Janu- 
ary, China at last awaking to the gravity of the accumu- 
lating disasters, which threatened the autonomy of the 
empire, dispatched a peace commission to the court of 
Japan. These envoys, who reached Hiroshima on the 
30th, were accompanied by the Hon. John W. Foster, 
ex-secretary of state of the United States, not represent- 
ing the government, but in the capacity of private ad- 
viser, being selected — and especially well-fitted — for the 
responsibilities of the position, owing to his experience as 
a diplomatist and his wide knowledge of Chinese affairs. 
Upon the manner of the reception of these envoys by the 
Japanese government, and the disposition of the momen- 
tous issues at stake, the future integrity of the Chinese 
Empire will largely depend.* The commission was re- 



See note, page 590. 



Japanh Extraordinary Achievements. 589 

ported to have been vested with plenipotentiary powers 
and authority to arrange for absolute surrender if neces- 
sary, and to stipulate for an immediate armistice. 

While the Japanese, during the present campaign, 
have exhibited superior fighting qualities, and in the 
handling of their war ships have evidenced a better 
knowledge of naval tactics and the art of modern war- 
fare than has been displayed by the Chinese, the contest 
between the two nations — though demonstrating these 
facts and leaving no doubt as to the ultimate issue of the 
war — has not been an uninterrupted round of Japanese 
successes. The disparity of the total losses up to the 
close of 1894, as summarized by a Japanese paper, and 
after alloAving a liberal discount for partiality, establishes 
the unmistakable fact, however, that while upon the one 
side there has been '' a display of Japanese skill, general- 
ship, discipline, dash and courage, upon the other there 
has been a display of Chinese ignorance, conceit, lack of 
tactics, discipline, cowardice and panic." 

While there is no suspicion of doubt as to the outcome 
of this extraordinary struggle for supremacy, between a 
nation whose population numbers three hundred million 
and another of thirty million, there is still less doubt as 
to the incalculable moral value of the conflict as regards 
the lessons taught in the interest of commercial progress 
and civilization. 



59Q Present Conditions. 

"There is no country in the world," writes Douglas, 
" where practice and profession are more widely separated 
than in China. The Empire is preeminently one of 
make believe. From the Emperor to the meanest of his 
subjects a system of high sounding pretension to lofty 
principles of morality holds sway, while the life of the 
nation is in direct contradiction to these assumptions." 

It is reasonable to assume that out of the present 
"seeming evil" good may be educed, and that the bitter 
blow to Chinese blind belief in her own omnipotence and 
superiority to the "barbarians of the outer world," as 
administered to her by Japan, may lead to the complete 
unlocking of her trade gates, and her moral and thorough 
rehabilitation. 



Note. — The commission referred to on page 588 was recalled, the 
Japanese refusing to treat with the representatives delegated by 
China upon the ground that they were not clothed with the neces- 
sary plenipotentiary powers. As the result, however, of further 
negotiations Li-Hung-Chang was subsequently appointed Envoy 
Extraordinary, and vested with complete authority to conclude 
terms of peace, he arrived at Semonisaki, March 19, 1895, with an 
imposing retinue, and accompanied by the Hon. John Foster. Un- 
official statements as to the conditions Japan is likely to impose, 
place the war indemnity at $250,000,000, the cession of the Island of 
Formosa, and the military occupation of the already invested terri- 
tory on the mainland. Whether the European powers, however, 
notably Great Britain and Russia, will consent to the dominant 
occupation of any portion of the mainland, which would seemingly 
constitute a possibility of Japanese supremacy in Eastern Asia, yet 
remains to be seen. 



Central Administration. 591 

There are a few facts of material value, only briefly 
referred to in the preceding chapters, but of present ad- 
ditional interest, in view of the invasion of China by 
Japan, an enumeration of which should be of use in the 
future study of China's governmental "machine," and 
the physical characteristics of her territory. 

Under the Emperor the central administration con- 
sists of what may be termed two Inner Cabinets and a 
number of Subsidiary Boards, controlling separate de- 
partments of state. These two cabinets are the Grand 
Secretariat or Nin-Koh, and the General Council or 
Kiun-Ki-Chu. The former consists of four Grand Sec- 
retaries — two of whom are Manchus and two Chinese— 
and two assistants. The Senior Grand Secretary had, 
up to the time of Li-Hung-Chang's appointment, always 
been a Manchu, he being the first Chinesie accorded this 
preeminent office. The staff numbers about two hun- 
dred. 

The Nin-Koh is in closest touch with the Emperor. 
To him it submits all papers, and from him it receives 
all instructions and edicts. It is also the custodian of 
the twenty-five imperial seals, necessary for the various 
documents issued by the severkl departments. 

The General Council consists of the heads of the de- 
partments and some others, subject to the call of the Em- 
peror for consultative purposes. It frames the imperial 



592 The Chinese Empire. 

edicts for signature and meets in daily conclave. It 
hands over all papers passed upon, to the Peking Gazette 
for publication, which is the oldest current official paper 
in the world, it having been in existence continuously 
for over one thousand years. Extracts from this are 
made by native literati, who make a living by selling the 
same to those of their countrymen who cannot afford to 
buy a copy of the complete paper. The General Coun- 
cil has offices in the interior of the " Forbidden Palace," 
and transacts its business between the hours of five and 
six A. M. 

Under these two councils are six administrative 
Boards viz: the (1) Civil Office, (2) Board of Kevenue, 
(3) Rites, (4) War, (5) Punishment, (6) Public 
Works. Each of these Boards has two presidents and 
two vice-presidents. 

The Chinese Empire may be divided into China 
"within," and China "beyond the Wall" — China within 
or Chinese proper, with it^ eighteen provinces, is known 
more or less to everyone. 

Beyond the Great Wall the. country is girdled by 
mountains. Northward at the sea of Okhotsk by the 
Yabloni, westward in a 'semi-circle by the ranges of 
the Saian, the Altai, Tian-Shan, Tsungling and Hima- 
layas, which unite in constituting a fairly continuous 
frontier-line of six thousand miles to Yunnan, the south- 



Resources and Agriculture. ^ 593 

west province of China proper.* This vast territory 
which includes Manchuria, Mongolia and Dzungaria in 
the north, and Eastern Turkestan and Tibet in the 
west, together with China proper and her independent 
dependencies, covers an area of four million four hundred 
and sixty-eight thousand seven hundred and fifty square 
miles. From its mountain ranges flow some of the larg- 
est rivers in the world which with their tributaries fur- 
nish an unrivalled internal water communication. Enor- 
mous deserts and lofty table-lands constitute its highland 
features, on the skirts of the mountains alone are there 
any arable lands, and these present their gentle and 
inviting slopes on the north side of the mountains only. 
Over two-thirds of the land in China at the present 
day — 1895 — is cultivated by tenants on the metayer, or 
one-half profit system. Nine-tenths of the population are 
engaged in agriculture. The principal crops consist of 
rice, which is the staple food, and sugar, which is the 
chief article of export, and sweet potatoes, pulse, garden 
vegetables, peanuts, indigo, sesamum, ginger, grass-cloth 
plant, tobacco and wheat. Each acre of ground contrib- 
utes, on an average, about one dollar and a half an- 
nually to the imperial treasury. The owner of one 
acre is regarded as having a competence ; the owner of 
ten acres is considered wealthy. Few own as much as 

♦Landsell's Central Asia. 
38 



594 China^s Mysterious Future. 

two hundred acres, wMle from one-tenth to one-half an 
acre is the average holding. Farm lands are worth from 
three hundred dollars to eight hundred dollars an acre, 
and rice fields are quoted at six hundred dollars. The 
chief cost of cultivating land is its fertilizing, crushed 
oil-less beans being used, at an average expenditure of 
twenty-four dollars to an acre. No buttermilk or cheese 
is either used or raised, and the farm animals consist of 
a water buffalo or a zebu. One acre of land will pro- 
duce, on an average, three thousand six hundred and 
forty-eight pounds of clean rice. The cost of food aver- 
ages about one dollar per month per head, and five dol- 
lars will keep an ordinary man in clothing, and one acre 
of land will sustain six persons. Adele Fielde cites 
the case of a man who inherited a farm of two acres. 
Himself, wife, son, daughter-in-law, four daughters and 
two grandchildren lived on the product. He managed 
to pay three dollars and sixty cents taxes a year, sold 
twenty dollars worth of rice, and had two hundred dol- 
lars invested drawing eighteen per cent, interest. At 
one-half the rate of production, but at the same rateof 
consumption, the arable area in the state of New York 
would support the whole of the present population of the 
United States. 

If a proper conception of China's possibilities appears 
to be a complex task, or a matter of mysticism, there can 



China's Trade Influence. 595 

be little doubt that she presents a vast field of profitable 
opportunity within her boundaries. As wholly unde- 
veloped as she is little understood, it is manifest that she 
only awaits the introduction of western methods to mate- 
rially influence the policy of all the nations and the entire 
current of the world's trade. 



INDEX. 



Aborigines, the, musical 240. 

Accadian Babylonian equivalents, 24. 

Accadian parallelisms, 497, 334. 

Acupuncture, practice of, 236. 

Agriculture, boards of, 202 ; esteem for, 
348, 350; great festival of, 348; re- 
spectability of, 200, 

Alphabet, the, lacking in Chinese, 146, 
477- 

Americans, the, in China, 49. 

Amherst, Lord, in China, 55. 

Anatomy, ignorance of, 237. 

Ancestors,honors to, 239, 330; sacrifices 
to the, 376 ; worship of, 81. 

Ancestral hall, the, 328. 

Ancestral tombs, worship at, 355, 365. 

Annals, Spring and Autumn, 506. 

Annam, settlements in, 18. 

Anniiiilation, theory of, 455. 

Anniversary ceremonies, 424. 

Application versus inspiration, 289. 

Architecture, Chinese, 255. 

Art, literature of, 537. 

Artificiality in Chinese art, 287. 

Asceticism and charity wearisome, 452. 

Assyrian parallelisms, 474. 

Astrology and matrimony, 119. 

Astronomy studied, 51 : and writing, 
19; early knowledge of, 530; a favor- 
ite study, 535. 

Asylums for lunatics unknown, 237. 

Autumn, beginning of the, 363. 

Babies, cries and movements of, 138. 

Baby, ceremony of washing, 130. 

Babylonian astronomy and Chinese, 20 ; 
parallelisms, 334. 

Ballet of the beasts, 373. 

Bandoline, use of, 188, 263. 

Banishment, punishment by, 107. 

Barbers, trade of, 197. 

Bastinado, the, loi, 102. 

Beans, health-giving, distributed, 345. 

Beggars, harvest of, 340. 

Beheading, process of, 104. 

Bell, the Great, at Canton, 26, 246 ; the 
Great at Peking, 245. 

Bells, uses of, 244. 

Bill of fare, a Chinese, 169. 

Biography, Chinese, 529. 

Birds, fortune-telling by means of, 399. 

Birth, importance of the hour of, 138. 

Birth, portents of, 137. 

Birthday, the first, 140. 

Blood, circulation of the, 231. 

Boat, travelling by, 294. 



Boat-people, numbers of, 200. 

Boat-races, 362. 

Bodhidharma arrives from India, 451; 
gains a reputation for spirituality, 452. 

Body, the human, elements of, 232. 

Book of Odes (She King), 36. 

Book, the oldest, 498. 

Books, categories of Chinese, 518, 544. 

Books burned, 42, 512 ; quality of, 496 ; 
search for, 517, 519. 

Bow and arrow, use of, 162. 

Bribery in civil cases, 100 ; in examina- 
tions, 156. 

Bridal gifts, 74, 119. 

Bride, reception of the by the groom, 
125 ; selection of a, 71. 

Bridges, the handsome, of old times, 
310. 

Brigands, murder charged to, 85. 

British, the, in China, 49. 

Brown, Prof. Francis, translator, 25. 

Bruce, Sir Frederick, 60, 65. 

Buddha, ceremony of bathing, 359; 
images of in mussels, 178; repudi- 
ated, 460 ; the sect of, 428. 

Buddhism, introduction of, 446, 463. 

Buddhist temples, 277. 

Buildings, no ancient in China, 255. 

Burial, custom of ancient in China, 410. 

Burial of the living, 411; omitted a 
calamity, 115; rites, importance of, 
116. 

Burials not permitted in cities, 357. 

Buttons, use of as marks of distinction, 
185. 

Calendar, the Hea, 499. 

Calling, choice of a, 148. 

Calls on New Year's Day, 337, 340. 

Canals used for travel, 294. 

Canque, punishment by the, 112. 

Canton, fall of, 60; opened to trade, 
49 ; prisons in, iii. 

Capture, marriage by, 114. 

Cards, engagement, 120. 

Carpets and stoves, 262. 

Carriages destitute of springs, 292. 

Caspian sea, origin of the Chinese on, 
18. 

Catalogues, love for making, 530. 

Cats, honors to, 377. 

Cattle, freeing of the, 372. 

Catty, defined, 222. 

Ceilings and roofs, 261. 

Celibacy in women honored under cer- 
tain circumstances, 322. 



596 



Index. 



597 



Censors, imperia], 99. 
Cereals, cultivation of, 204. 
Ceremonial in China, SS ; rules of, 

510.* 
Ceremonies, a professor of, 329 ; at 

marriage, 116; prescriptions of the 

Board of, 351- 
Ceremony of washing the baby, 139. 
Civil service, examinations, 19, 149 : 

corruption of the, 93, 96. 
Chaldea, the source of Chinese astron- 
omy, 535. 
Chaldean year, begmning of the, 24. 
Changes, Book of, 497. 
Characters, combinations of, 480 
Characters of Chinese writing, 465. 
Che Hwang-te, dynasty of, 41, 44. 
Chemistry, ignorance of, 237. 
Children completely subject to parents, 

142. 
Children, life of in boats, 301. 
Children, omens regarding, 137. 
Children, selling, 141. 
Chinese desire peace with England, 57 ; 

not artistic, 283; race, origin of, 17, 

iS; temperament phlegmatic, 102, 

23(S. 
Chopsticks, use of, 167. 
Chow, Duke of, 509. 
Chow dynasty, the, 30. 
Chow, rights of the sovereign of, 470. 
Chow, sceptre of, waning, 41. 
Christianity, an idea of obtained, 59. 
Christians massacred, 67, 68. 
Chronology, Chinese, indefinite, 381 ; 

favorite with Chinese writers, 530. 
Chrysanthemums, legend concerning, 

371- 
Ch''n7i Ts'eiv, the, (Spring and Autumn 

Annals) 506. 
Clairvoyance and mesmerism, 409. 
Classification, Chinese, 535. 
Classics, the five, 147. 
Cleanliness, love of the silkworm for, 

221. 
Clothes depended upon for warmth, 

262. 
Clothes, the first of an infant, 139. 
Cock-crowing, disturbance of, 304. 
Coffins, ceremonies regarding, 415, 4r8, 
Comets, superstitions about, 387. 
Comfort unknown in Chinese homes, 

2p2. 

Compilation, activity in, 494. 

Complexion, water that will make clear, 
, 364- 

Complexions, artificial, 1S9. 

Compliments, use of in conversation, 
490. 

Concubinage, 12S. 

Concubines, the imperial, 75. 

Confucius approves the Five King, 509, 
510 ; as a historian, 507 ; attempts to 
explain ancient literature, 497 ; edits 
the book of history, 502 ; exanii)le of 
in historical writing, 525 ; house of 
pulled down, 256 ; lofty aims of, 435 ; 
misjudgment of, 508, 509, 



Confucius on music, 253 ; on filial piety, 
143 ; on women, 127; political creed 
of, 40; state of letters on death of, 
514: a story of, 39 ; views concerning 
man's nature, 534 

Confucianism defined, 430; the religion 
of scholars, 428, 463. 

Confucian temples, 276. 

Conjugal fidelity, emblems of, 120. 

Conservatism, Chinese, 478. 

Conservatism in letters, 496, 546. 

Consolidation of the empire, 26. 

Conversation, self-depreciation in, 489. 

Constellations, notions regarding the, 
536. 

Coolie, dress of a, 180. 

Corn, Indian, production of, 205. 

Corpse,the,of Bodhidhanna speaks, 453- 

Cosmetics, use of, 1S8, 341. 

Courage, seat of, 231. 

Couriers, speed of the official, 311. 

Couvaide, custom of, 140. 

Cremation, practice of, 427. 

Criminals, inhumanity to, loi ; punish- 
ment of, 103. 

Crimes, discrimination of the laws re- 
garding, 112. 

Cycle, the full Chinese, 52. 

Cycles, the sexagenary, 382. 

Cyclone, the, of 1874, 300. 

Daughters, small good of, 142. 

Day, the night before the shortest, 373. 

Days, lucky and unlucky, 394. 

Dialects, the Chinese, 36, 479. 

Diet among the wealthy, 171. 

Dinner, the bridal, 126; a cottage, 168; 
menu, a, 172 ; singing at a, i-]\. 

Dinner-party, a Chinese, 171. 

Disease, antidote against, 367, 372. 

Diseases, classes of in China, 234. 

Disturbances, suppression of, 90. 

Divination by the tortoise, 403. 

Divining the future, modes of, 395. 

Divorce, grounds of, 128. 

Death, approach of, 232. 

Death by degrees, punishment of, 103. 

Death, euphemisms for, 413. 

Death, notices of, 416. 

Death preferred to marriage, 129. 

Death-bed ceremonies, 413. 

Degeneracy, an age of, 37, 38. 

Degrees, scholarly, 151, 157. 

Deities, some Chinese. 28. 

Deity, belief in a personal, 429. 

Demons, ceremony of exorcising, 378. 

Demons raised by the willow, 358. 

Depreciation of self in conversation, 4S9. 

De Quincey's Flight of a Tartar Tribe, 
19- 

Dew, potency of the, 366. 

Dragon-boat festival, the, 360. 

Drawing, the art of, 280. 

Drums, sorts of, 243. 

Doctors, classes of, 233 ; their fees, 235. 

Doctrine and diet, 167. 

Dogs' flesh, diet of, 169; how prepared 
for food, 170 ; strength derived from 
the flesh of, 347, 



598 



Index, 



Dogwood, an antidote against disease, 
372. 

Drama, the, in China, 552. 

Dress always loose, 180. 

Drowning girls, 142. 

Duck's eggs, day for pickling, 376. 

Dynasties, the Chinese, 44 ; literary 
traits of the different, 523. 

Dynasty, natural limit of a, 58. 

Early to bed, 144. 

Earth, notions regarding the, 536. 

East India Company, 52. 

Eclipses, superstitions regarding, 388. 

Education a stereotyped system followed 
for centuries, 147; of the young, 137, 
145- 

Egyptian parallelisms, 474. 

Elgin, Lord, minister, 60. 

Encyclopaedia, an, edited, 51. 

Encyclopjedias, age of, 538 

Engagement, how to break an, 119. 

Engagements, horoscopes of, 119. 

English in China, 55. 

Empire, establishment of the, 471. 

Empiricism, medical, 230. 

Emperor, the Chinese, the" father "of 
his people, 87. 

Epicureanism in Taouism, 443. 

Essays, canonical laws cf composition, 
'S3- 

Essay-writing, the art of, 149 ; profici- 
ency in, 545. 

Estates, transmission of, 201. 

Etiquette before marriage, 119 ; official, 
88. _ 

Examinations, classes excluded from, 
161 ; military, 162. 

Extortion, official, 94. 

Eyebrows, treatment of, 189. 

Eyes, superstitions regarding, 401. 

Faces and feet among Chinese women, 
188. 

Faces, fortunes in, 400. 

Facts, disconnected, gathered with dili- 
gence, 528. 

Family life, 113. 

Family, pride of, 327. 

Fancy wanting in Chinese writings, 553. 

Farmers freeing their cattle, 372. 

Fasting, ceremonies of the Hall of, 374. 

Father, debts of the, 143 ; power of, 141. 

Feast, the, of graduation, 155. 

February, rejoicings in, 335. 

Feet, Chinese, small, 195. 

Feet and faces, in China, 188. 

Feet, the, of the women, 189, 190. 

Feudal system, disappearance of, 470. 

Feudalism abolished, 42. 

Fiddles and guitars, 250. 

Filial piety, 143. 

Filial piety the cornerstone of Confu- 
cianism, 434. 

"First-foot," omen of the, 338. 

Fish, diet, a, 175; marketed alive, 178. 

Fishing in China, 175 ; with cormo- 
rants, 176. 

Five King, the, approved by Confucius, 
510. 



Flogging prisoners, loi. 
Flood, the "great," 28. 
Flower, how to paint a, 287. 
Food and dress, 164. • 

Food, nourishing, taken at certain 

times, 347. 
Foos, palaces, 266. 
Formality in essay- writing, 546. 
Formosa, rebellion at, 56. 
Fortune-telling, 395. 
Fortunes made in office, 95. 
Frogs as an article of diet, 172. 
Funeral bake-meats, 357, 423. 
Funeral rites, 410. 
Funds, misappropriation -of, 92. 
Fuh-he, invents music, 239. 
F'ung people, the, 26. 
Furniture, Chinese, 262, 263. 
Future tense, how indicated, 492. 
Game, production of, 179. 
Games at dinner, 171. 
Gardens in cities, 268. 
Gauzes produced at Canton, 225. 
Generalization not known to Chinese 

writers, 529. 
Geography in Chinese literature, 528. 
Ghosts, feeding the hungry, 365. 
Ginseng soup, value of in diet, 347. 
Girls of little value, 142. 
Girls, place for drowning, 142. 
God of literature, the, 444. 
God, the, of Confucius not a personal 

deity, 434. 
Gods of the kitchen, 380. 
Gongs, sorts of, 247. 
Gordon, " Chinese," 65 ; honored in 

China, 315. 
Government, the art of, 533 ; Chinese, 

a patriarchal despotism, 87; officers 

of, 89. 
Government, oppressive, fiercer than a 

tiger, 40. 
Grace wanting in the literature, 495. 
Grammar, poverty in, 484. 
Graves, importance of the sites of, 418. 
Graveyards, Chinese, always in tlie 

open country, 357. 
Great Seal characters, 36. 
Gunpowder, antiquity of, 163. 
Hades, the spirits in, 356. 
Hair, fortunes in, 401. 
Hair, modes of wearing, 188. 
Hair-dressing, 263. ^ 

Hair restorer, a, 169. 
Hall, the ancestial, 328. 
Hats, materials for, 185. 
Hea, the dynasly of, 29; calendar of 

the, 499. 
Head, shaving the, 195. 
Heads uncovered, 183. 
Heaven, the, of Buddhism, 454; the 

impersonal of Confucius, 434. 
Heen-fung, emperor, death of, 67. 
Hexagrams in the book of changes, 

498'. 
Hieroglyphic writing, 469, 472. 
Hieroglyphics, Assyrian, 474. 
Highways, the good, of old times, 309. 



Index. 



599 



Histories, the imperial, 526. 

History the most important branch of 
literature, 525 ; book of, 25, 502 ; on 
the back, of a tortoise, 468; work in, 
503- 

Hoang-ho river, the, 18. 

Home, rule in the, 126. 

Honan, the cradle of drawing, 280. 

Honan, home of the Kwei people, 466. 

Honan, people of, 466. 

Honors, Chmese, not hereditary, 312; 
posthumous,3i4 ; sold in open market, 
317; withdrawn, 319. 

Horseflesh, diet of, 169. 

Horse races at Peking, 363. 

Hour, the, unknown m China, 385. 

Household, the imperial, 75. 

Households in the ancestral hall, 329. 

Houses in art, 287; pleasant inside, 
258 ; tent-like form of, 256. 

Humility assumed by the emperor, 491. 

Hung Sewtsuen, a leader of the discon- 
tented, 59. 

Hunting season, the opening of the, 
368. 

Hwang-te, emperor, 19 ; burns books, 
512 ; honors Confucius with a temple, 
429; introduces surnames, 324, 326; 
studies medicine, 229; musical efforts 
of, 241. 

Ignorance, a time of, 43. 

Imagination, absence of, 494, 554 •- lack- 
ing in Chinese writings, 553 ; first 
tales of, 520. 

Imitation, skill in. 289. 

Immolation at funerals, 411. 

Immortality, the elixir of, 443, 459. 

Imprisonment, a strange, 447. 

Incense offered to a dead body, 417. 

India, an embassy to, 448. 

Industrjr misdirected, 524. 

Infanticide in China, 127 ; legally a 
crime, 141. 

Infants' first clothes, 139. 

Inflection, absence of, 488. 

Inhumanity to prisoners, lor. 

Inns on post-roads, 311 ; not desirable 
lodging-places, 303. 

Insanity, repressive treatment of, 237 

Insects, fire-crackers an antidote for, 
363- 

Interment of the dead, 420. 

Irrigation, modes of, 206, 208. 

Jade sceptre, the, 73. 

Jesuits at Peking, 51. 

Joss-stick, a, 74. 

Jungs, the, 26. 

Junks, names of, 298 ; sea-going de- 
scribed, 297; travel by, 295. 

Justice, administration of, 100 ; little 
known, 92. 

Kalmucks, flight of the, 19. 

Kang, a, defined, 262; the, at the inns, 
303. 

K'ang, rule of, 31. 

K'ang-he, long reign of, 49, 50, 51, 384. 

K'een-Iung, 52, 55. 

Kidnappers, punishment of, 105. 



Kieh kwei, a monster of iniquity, 30. 

K'in, the, described, 249. 

Kin Tartars, home of the, 45. 

Kitchen gods, festival of, 380. 

Kites, riynig of, 371. 

Knowledge, categories of Chinese, 544. 

Ko-t'ow, ceremony of, 46, 343, 350, 

391, 423- 
Ku-jin, degree of, 152, 155. 
Kwang-se, a claimant of the throne, 58. 
Kwang-su, accession of, 82. 
Kwei people, the, 25. 
Kwei shoo, the, 26. 
Kwei writing, the, 465, 467. 
Land tenure in China, 200. 
Language, the Chinese, 464 ; origin of, 
482 ; refinement in the spoken, 487 ; 
uncertainty in using, 493 ; written, 
470. 
Lanterns, feast of the, 341. 
Laou-tsze, account of, 439. 
Law, practice of unnecessary, 148. 
Lawlessness, spread of, 32. 
Legge's misjudgment of Confucius, 508. 
Legerdemain, 373. 
Legislation one-sided, 128. 
Le ke, the Book of Rites, 509. 
Lenormant, Frangois, ^^ Les Origines 

de r his to ire, 25. 
Letters, Chinese fondness for, 32. 
Licentiousness, a period of, 37. 
Life, a fresh lease of, 338; future, 

notions of, 418. 
Ling che, the, 103. 
Linguistic forms, 473. 
Literature, Chinese, 494; complete col- 
lection of Chinese, 543, 545; decad- 
ence of, 539 ; divisions of, 523 ; the 
god of, 444; golden age of, 538; 
growth of, 520; improvement of, 514, 
517: obliged to begin anew, 512; 
origin of, 496; revival of, 551 ; slow 
growth of, 512 ; and science fostered, 
.so- 
Literary degrees, honors of, 156; ex- 
ercises delighted in, 342. 
Lotus flowers and birds, 454. 
Lovers' presents, 1 19. 
Lucky days, 394. 
Lunatic, execution of a, 104. 
Lute, the, of twenty-five strings, 239. 
Lynching, 105. 
Macartney, lord, 52. 
Magical arts andTaouism, 445. 
Magistrates, punishment of, 91. 
Mahayana system, the, brought to 

China, 451. 
Mahomedanism in China, 463. 
Man, destiny of in his own hand, 4^ ; 
nature of, theories of, 534; original 
nature of, according to Confucius, 
430. 
Manchoo rulers of China, 45. 
Manchoos, peace with the, 46. 
Manes, provisions for, the, 356, 365 ; 

sacrifices to the, 361. 
Manes, the, supposed to wander, 115. 
Mandarin, an honest, 96, 98. 



600 



Index. 



Mandarinate, admission to, 162. 

Mandarins, dishonest, punished by the 
people, go; dress of, 184; not allowed 
to hold office in their native provinces, 
g3 ; not punished for crimes, 96. 

Mandarins' wives, dress of, 187. 

Margary, expedition of to Yunnan, 82 ; 
death of, 86. 

Married life, dark picture of, 135. 

Marriage, a complex, 71-75 ; a leap in 
the dark, 127 ; at the basis of Chinese 
institutions, 113; by capture, 114; 
cards and red silk, 121 ; ceremonies, 
114, 116; choice of the day for, 122; 
encouraged by legislation, 115; en- 
durable to Chinese, 136 ; institution 
of, 113 ; of those of the same " sing," 
325; omens regarding, 337 ; universal, 

Massacre, the T'sien-tsin, 67. 
Matrimony abjured by Miss Wang, 320 ; 

professors of, 72. 
Maxims, the sixteen Sacred, of K'ang 

he, 49, 438.. 
Meat, disinclination to, 167. 
Mechanical nature of Chinese art, 284, 

288 ; traits of Chinese art, 537. 
Mechanics, ingenuity in, 202. 
Medicine in China, 229; literature of, 

537 ; practice of empirical, 148. 
Mediocrity of Chinese literature, 495. 
Mediums, spiritualistic, 407. 
Meen dynasty, effort to restore the, 58. 
Memory unduly exercised in Chinese 

schools, 148. 
Mencius on the decay of the world, 506 ; 

remarks on a period of Chinese his- 
tory, 38 ; teachings of, 511. 
Mercury, early knowledge of the value 

of, 238. 
Mesopotamian culture compared with 

Chinese, 25. 
Metaphysical heresies, 452. 
Mid-lent Sunday, 359. 
Milk of cnws not used, iSo. 
Milk name, the, 331. 
Missionaries, hostility to, 67, 68, 69. 
Mongolia, home of the Ottoman Turks, 

^9- 
Mongolian words, introduction of, 481. 
Monogamy practiced, i]6'. 
Month, an intercalary, 20. 
Months, the Chmese, 24, 333, 334, 345. 
Moon, the, associated with the months, 

345 ; festival of the, 367 ; eclipses of, 

388. 
Morality, Chinese, 504: European and 

Chinese, 508; laxness in, 100. 
Mother of all things, the, 442. 
Mothering Sunday, 359- 
Mourning, ceremonies of, 416. 
Mouth, the, as indicating character, 402. 
Muh, penal code of, 32. 
Mules, the use of, 294. 
Museum, the British, Chinese works in 

the, 544. 
Music, invention of, 229, 239. 
Nak-kon-ti, chief of the Susians, 19. 



Name, the "milk," 331. 

Names, in China, 324; confusion of. 

332. 
Nanking, fall of, 66. 
Napier. Lord, in China, 56. 
Nature, the mysteries of explainea by 

the Taouists, 445. 
Navigation dangerous, 299. 
Needle, use of in medical practice, 236. 
New Year's Day, the Chinese, 335, 

337> 339, 343, 344- 
New Year's Eve, celebration of, 336. 
Nirvana and taou, 441. 
Nirvana not a material paradise, 455. 
Nobles, bad rule of, 470. 
Nobility, titles of, 313. 
Nothingness, pure, of Buddhism, 455. 
Novel, the best Chinese, 556. 
Novels, traits of Chinese, 554. 
Numerals, Chinese, 488. 
Nunneries in China, 129. 
Obedience of children, 144. 
Odes, antiquity of some, 547. 
Odes, Book of, 36, 501. 
Offerings to the god of agriculture, 350. 
Office-holders generally corrupt, 93 ; 

released from parental control, 145. 
Office-holding a favorite career, 148. 
Omens regarding birth, 137 : regarding 

matrimony, 337 ; regarding going to 

school, 145. 
Opinion, public, imperfectly expressed. 

92. 
Opium burned, 57 ; question, the, 56. 
Opium-smoking, punishment for, 92. 
Oppression, protection against, 99. 
Ostracism of river-people, 301. 
Ottoman Turks, original home of the, 

19. 
Pagodas, design of, 278. 
Pagoda, the most magnificent, 279. 
Paint, laws about, 263. 
Painting, literature of , 537. 
Palaces, the, of Peking, 266, 267. 
Palmistry, practice of, 409. - 
Panthay rebels, the, 70. 
Parallelism in Chinese verse, 55c. 
Parallelisms between Indian and Chi- 
nese religions, 446. (See Accadian 

and Babylonian.) 
Pardons, chance award of, 106. 
Parents, respect for, 143. 
Parkes, Sir Harry in a Chinese prison, 

107. 
Past tense, how indicated, 492. 
Patience and good-humor in crowds, 

265. 
Pause, the caesura!, in Chinese verse, 

550. 
Peach-trees, influence of, 379. 
Peacock's feather, reward of the, 317. 
Peking, burning of, 513: surrender of, 

61. 
Penates, honors to the, 377. 
Pencils, College of the Forest of, 158. 
Pencil-writing by spirits, 406. 
People, the, called "black heads," 517. 
Perspective not understood, 283. 



Index. 



601 



Philology, ignorance of, 472. 
Philosophical speculation, 456. 
Philosophy of China, character of, 533. 
Phonetic decay, result of, 480, 484. 
Phonetic writing, 469, 473. 
Physiognomy, Chinese, 403. 
Physiology unknown in China, 230. 
Piety, filial, 143 ; the cornerstone of 

Confucianism, 434; of Miss Wang, 

320. 
Pig-tail, the, 195, 196. 
Pisciculture, 17S. 
Planets, how watched, 392 ; recognized 

by the Chinese, 20. 
Plays, Chinese, trails of, 553. 
Plowing, sacerdotal, 352. 
Ploughs, the Chinese, 202 ; the imperial 

yellow, 350. 
Poetry, perfunctory, 551. 
Politics, creed of Confucius regardr^", 

40; music in, 250. 
Portents based on the appearance of liie 

planets, 393. 
Portraits not successful, 289. 
Portuguese, the, in China, 49 
Pottinger, Sir Henry, 58. 
Poultry', production of, 179. 
Poetr}' before prose in China, 547. 
Prefect, an honest, 98. 
Presents, birthday, 141. 
Priesthood, novitiates admitted to the, 

360. 
Prisons in Canton, iii ; horrors of the 

Chinese, 107. 
Prize packages, 342. 
Professions, the liberal, unknown, 48. 
Progress, deficiency in, 47S. 
Property, transfer of, 202. 
Prostration, ceremony of, 343 ; before 

roj'-alty, 80. 
Progress, lack of in letters, 496. 
Provinces, government of, 89. 
Punctuation, absence of in Chinese 

books, 493. 
Punishment inflicted nn criminals, 103. 
Purity, official, little known, 92. 
Quacks practicing medicine, 232. 
Queue, the, of men, 195. 
Railways, probable introduction of, 306 
Razors, the Chinese, 198 ; use of the, 

195- 
Rats, an article of diet, i6g. 
Rebellions in China, 56. 
Reception, an imperial, 76. 
Reed instruments of music, 243. 
Relics, worship of, 450. 
Religion in China, 42S; music in, 246 ; 

no stages of growth found in, 504. 
Remedies used in China, 233. 
Responsibility of officials, gr. 
Rhyme in Chinese verse, 549. 
Rice, cultivation of, 204, 205. 
Rice, the staff of life, 164. 
Riddles at the bridal feast, 126. 
Riding, mules used in, 293. 
Rising, early, 144. 
Rites, the Board of, 509. 
Rites, the Book of, 75, 509; quoted, 144. 



Ritual for funerals, 413. 

Roads, the good old,309 ; macadamized, 
266, 291 

Roofs and ceilings, 261. 

Rulers, incompetent, 40. 

I\.ules, dependence upon, 268; cut-and- 
dried of essay-writing, 546 ; of Chi- 
nese art, 2S4, 288, 537 ; regarding 
temples, 275. 

Sacrifices at the tomb necessary, 116. 

Sails on wheelbarrows, 304. 

Sakyamuni, saintship of, 379 ; teachings 
of, 446, 459- 

Salaries, official, low, 93. 

Sail full, the " three records," 499. 

Satin, production of, 225. 

Sayce, Prof., compares Babylonian and 
Chinese astronomy, 23. 

Schaal, Adam, visits China, 46. 

Scenery in the Chinese theatre, 554. 

School life, 145. 

School books, 146. 

Science, no traces of growth in, 504; 
and literature supported, 50. 

Scholars, the sect of, 428. 

Seal characters (large), the, 468, 470, 
471 ; (small) the, 471. 

Seals, ceremony of closing the., 379. 

Sedan-chairs, 26;, 291. 

Seasons, the Chinese, 346; means of 
calculating the, 536 ; pervading prin- 
ciples of the, 139. 

Sentences, immutability of forms of, 
500. 

Sexagenary cycle, early knowledge of, 
382, 530. 

Shang dynasty, the, 29. 

Shansi, province of settled, 18. 

Shang-te, sacrifices in honor of, 375 ; 
who was he? 27, 28. 

Shawls of crape, production of, 225. 

She Chow, system of writing of, 36. 

She king, the " Book of Odes," 501. 

Shoo king, the " Book of History," 
502. 

Shops, 264. 

Signs for words, 475. 

Silkworms, care of, 220; cultivation of, 
218 ; weaving, 222. 

Silken cord, punishment of the, 104. 

Silkworm, the wild, 225. 

Sitig, the earliest, 325. 

Singing girls at a dinner, 171. 

Sins of omission or commission, danger 
from, 421. 

Sleeves, uses of, 1S3. 

Soap not used in shaving, 198. 

Sod, turning of the first, 349. 

Souls, transmigration of, 167 

Sovereign and people, relations be- 
tween, 88. 

Spirits, necessity of propitiating, 366 ; 
provision for the comfort of, 356. 

Spiritualism, Chinese, 404. 

Spring and Autumn Annals, 506. 

Spring, great festival of, 348. 

Stage accessories in China, 554. 

Stars, science of the, 504. 



602 



Index. 



Starvation in prison, io8. 

State, Council of, 89. 

Stones, musical, 243. 

Strangulation, execution by, 104. 

Streets and roads, 264, 266, 292 ; dreary 
aspect of, 257. 

Stringed instruments of music, 243, 248. 

Study, honor obtained for, 320. 

Success the standard of skill in medi- 
cine, 233. 

Succession, the royal, 8r. 

Suicide of wives, 130. 

Suicides, state, formality of, 134. 

Summer, beginning of, 363. 

Sumptuary laws, 263. 

Sun, eclipses of the, 38S, 391 ; notions 
regarding the, 536. 

Sung; dynasty, state of letters during, 
538. 

Superstitions, 386; of taouism, 443 ; of 
the willow, 35, 358; regarding the 
chrysanthemum, 371 ; regarding mar- 
riage, 337; concerning the silkworm, 
221; tyranny of, 460. 

Surnames introduced, 324; pride in, 

327- 
Susian, outbreak at, 18. 
Swaddling-clothes, essential, 138. 
Swallows welcome, 359. 
Swords, use of, 163. 
Syllabaries, a collection of, 497. 
Symbolism, fondness for, 340; of the 

planets, 393. 
Tael, defined, 228. 
Taheo (Great Learning), 510. 
Tai-ping dynasty, the, 59; rebellion, 

the, 59, 62, 66. 
Taku forts, the, taken, 61. 
Tanka, the, of the Chinese rivers, 300. 
Taouism, the religion of, 428; defined, 

438. 
Taou-kwang, emperor, 56. 
Tartars, protection against, 43. 
Te, derivation of, 28. 
Tea, how to drink it, 217. 
Tea, varieties of, 215. 
Tea-plant, the, 210. 
Teks, the, 26. 

Temperance in China, 217. 
Temple, the most magnificent of China, 

436. . ... 

Temples prominent in cities, 272. 
Terrestrial paradise a, 459. 
Thanksgiving-day, 377. 
Theatre, the Chinese, 554. 
Thresliing, process of, 209. 
Threshold, lifting the bride over, 125. 
Tibet added to the empire, 49. 
T'ien-tsin, massacre, 67, 70. 
Tigers, honors to, 377. 
Taou defined, 441, 463. 
Tombs, rules regarding, 424. 
Tombs, worship at the ancestral, 355, 

365. 
Tombstones, regulations regarding, 426. 
Tones, value of in Chinese, 485. 
Topography, books on, 527. 
Tortures, loi, loz. 



Trade a favorite calling, 148. 
Tradition the basis of much Chinese 

history, 527. 
Travel, by boats, 302. 
Travelling, in China, 291 ; the art of, 

293- 
Treachery during the Taiping rebellion, 

65- 
Treaty with England, 60, 62. 
Triad Society, the, 56. 
Trumpet, the, in China, 244. 
Tsang explains self-cultivation, as taught 

by Confucius, 433. 
Ts'in, state of, conquered, 41. 
T'ung-che, accession of, 67 ; marriage 

of, 71 ; death of, 81. 
Turks, home of the, 19. 
Typhoons, danger from, 299, 300. 
Uncertainty in the language, 493. 
Uniformity in Chinese dwelling, 272. 
Vaccination, introduction of, 235. 
Verb, result of want of inflection of, 492. 
Verse, traits of, 550. 
Verse-making, laws of, 548._ 
Virtue always sustained in Chinese 

novels, 555 ; its own reward, 434. 
Vocables, richness of the language in, 

479- 
Wade, Sir Thomas, 86. 
Walking among women, rgi. 
Wall, the Great, built, 43. 
Walls, the, of cities, 271. 
Wang, Miss, publicly honored, 320. 
War, backwardness of the Chinese in, 

163. 
War, declared by England, 60. 
War predictions of, 388. 
Warmth obtained by adding garments, 

262. 
Water for the complexion, 364 ; never 

drunk cold, 168. 
Water-ways, books on the, 529. 
Wax, white insect, 226. 
We, the imperial, 491. 
Wealth gathered in office, 95. 
Weather, influence of the changes of, 

363 ; prayer for seasonable, 79. 
West, the Pure Land of the, 453, 455. 
Wheel-traffic unknown, 264. 
Wheelbarrow, travel by, 304. 
Wheelbarrows unknown in agriculture, 

203. 
Widow, suicide of a, 131. 
Widows, may not remarry, 129. 
Willow, superstition connected with, 

358- 
Willow-trees, influence of over demons, 

379- 
Wine and chrysanthemums, 371. 
Winnowing, process of, 209. 
Winter solstice, feast of the, 373. 
Wives, devotion of, 130. 
Woman a beautiful, causes war, 290. 
Women, day for boring their ears, 379 ; 

disabilities of, 129; dress of, 187; 

dress of, 263; feasting of the, 340; 

government by, 67 ; honors assigned 

to, 319, 320; " inferiority " of, 138; 



Supplementary Index. 



603 



Women, lives of, 127 ; longevity of, 
323; marketable commodities, 128; 
sacrifices of, 364. 

Woo Wana;, prince of Chow, 30. 

Words, collecting, 32. 

Words, compound, 481 ; signs for cer- 
tain classes, 474. 

Worship, ancestral, 81 ; official of 
Confucius, 436 

Writing, a system of, 361 ; and astron- 
omy, 19 ; and drawing, 288 ; no 
clear account of its origin, 464 ; tra- 
ditions of the origin of, 467. 

Yamun, an official residence, 148. 



Yaou, emperor, 26. 
Year, the Chinese, 333, 345. 
Yellow, fondness for, 261. 
Yellowjacket, order of the, 315. 
Yellow river, the, bursts its bounds, 

Yih king, the oldest book, 498. 
Young, education of, 137. 
Youth, perpetual, sought, 444. 
Yu, the great, leads the waters of the 

flood back, 29. 
Yung-ching, emperor, 52. 
Yunnan, Mahomedanism in, 463 ; 

murder in, 82 ; rebellion in, 70. 



SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX. 



American, Consul assaulted, 588 ; uni- 
versity, 568, 574. 
Agriculture, progress and process of, 

593- 

Annam, surrender to France, of, 569. 

Army, strength of, 584 ; defeat of, by 
Japan, 587. 

Bacninh, capture of, 569. 

Blair, United States minister, 578. 

China, "Beyond the Wall," 592 ; de- 
clares war against Japan, 583. 

'* China's Sorrow," 575. 

Civil Service examinations, 559 ; cor- 
ruption of, 580. 

Chun, Prince, appointed dictator, 573. 

Chung-How, envoy to St. Petersburg, 
563. 

Commerce, 579. 

Commercial panic, 568. 

Corea, troubles in, 581-582; landing 
of Japanese troops, 581 ; declares 
its independence. 

Cotton mills, steam, 565. 

Education, development of, 574. 

Empress RegentTsi-An, death of, 566. 

England, neutrality of, 583 ; transport 
sunk, 583. 

Envoys proceed to Japan. 588-590. 

Expenditures, 579-580. 

Foster, Peace Commissioner, Hon. 
J no. W., 588-590. 

Germany, naval officers, 571. 

Gill, exploits of Captain, 561. 

Gordon, Colonel, 574. 

Grant, visit of General U. S., 566. 

Great Wall, Russian freedom of, 563. 



Hainan, revolt on Island of, 566. 

Hainoi, fall of, 567. 

Japan lands troops in Corea, 581 ; 

declares war against China, 583 ; 

lands troops in Manchuria, 583 ; 

army and navy of, 586. 
Kashgar, capture of, 562. 
Kashgaria, war in, 559. 
Kolao Hui, secret society ot, 577. 
Ko-tow, observance of the, 577. 
Kuldja, retrocession of, 563. 
Kung, dismissal of Prince, 573. 
Kwangsu (Emperor), marriage of, 

576 ; accession of, 576. 
Lang, Admiral, 573-585. 
Lhassa, 564. 

Li-Hung-Chang, 558-571, 573-575- 
Loans, 579. 

Lottery, Great Weising, 558. 
Manchuria, Japanese troops land in, 

583. 
Manas, surrender of, 560; slaughter 

of Tungans at, 560. 
Min Forts, French bombard the, 570. 
Moukden, threatened by Japan, 583. 
Navy, 585. 

O'Conor, British minister, 578. 
Oyama, field marshal, 587. 
Opium, trade in, 565-574. 
Parkes, Sir Harry, 570. 
Peace envoys proceed tojapan, 588- 

590- 

Port Arthur, Japanese take, 584 ; al- 
leged Japanese atrocities, 587. 

Port Hamilton, English occupation 
of, 572. 



604 



Supplementary Index, 



Portugal, treaty with, 575. 
Railroads, construction of, 560-574. 
Red Book, the official, 580. 
Resources, 593. 
Revenue, 579-580. 
Right of Audience, 577. 
Shantung, famine in, 561. 
Seoul, capture of, by Japanese, 58 1. 
Sungaria, invasion of, 561. 
Tibet, Grand Lama of, 564. 
Tientsin, treaty of, 560-581. 
Treaty Ports, 560, 581. 



Tseng Marquis, 563, 573, 576. 

Tso-Tsang-Tang, victories of, 561. 

Turkestan, conquests in, 562. 

United States, trade with, 565 : ap- 
pointment as arbitrator of. Presi- 
dent of, 569. 

Von Haneicen, General, 585. 

Yakoob Beg, 559, 561. 

Yang-tse-Kiang, treaty, ports on the, 
561. 

Yellow River, floods on, 560. 

Yunnan, earthquake in, 575. 





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